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THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING 
FARM   ANIMALS 


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THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING 
FARM  ANIMALS 


BY 

SLEETER  BULL,  B.S..  B.S.Ac,  M.S. 

ASSOCIATE    IN'    ANIMAL    NTTRITION,    COLLEGE    OF    AGKIOILTURE 

AND    AGKICULT0RAL   EXPERIMENT   STATION   OF 

THE   UNIVERSITY   OK    ILLINOlli 


'Ntisi  gork 

THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1921 

All  rightu  reserved 


Copyright,  1916, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  September,  1916, 


Norisoot)  i^ress 

J.  9.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PKEFACE 

This  volume  is  an  outgrowth  from  a  class  manual  written 
several  years  ago  by  the  author  for  the  use  of  elementary  stu- 
dents at  the  University  of  Illinois  in  a  general  course  in  stock- 
feeding.  Inasmuch  as  there  has  been  some  little  demand  for 
the  class  manual  from  outside  sources,  the  author  has  rewritten 
the  original  manuscript  and  added  a  number  of  valuable  illus- 
trations and  tables. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  present  the  scientihc  facts  under- 
lying the  art  of  feeding  animals  in  such  a  manner  that  the  book 
will  not  only  be  suitable  for  use  as  a  text  for  college  courses  in 
general  feeding,  but  will  also  be  valuable  to  the  farmer  who 
has  not  had  a  technical  education  in  agriculture.  Thus  it  has 
been  deemed  wise  to  omit  many  minor  details  and  a  large  part 
of  the  mass  of  experimental  data  from  which  the  general  con- 
clusions are  deduced. 

In  the  first  six  chapters  the  author  has  discussed  the  scien- 
tihc aspects  of  the  subject  and  has  attempted  to  present  them 
in  a  simple,  concise  manner  so  that  they  may  be  easily  under- 
stood, not  only  by  the  student  but  also  by  the  feeder  who 
desires  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  scientific  principles 
underlying  the  art  of  stock-feeding.  A  large  number  of  draw- 
ings and  photographs  illustrating  points  in  the  discussion 
should  be  of  great  value  in  this  connection. 


vi  PREFACE 

On  account  of  the  "  back  to  the  land  "  movement  which  is 
sending  men  from  the  cities  to  the  agricultural  colleges  and  to 
the  farm,  a  mere  discussion  of  balanced  rations  and  feeding 
standards  has  not  seemed  sufficient.  Consequently  the  author 
has  presented  rather  definite  rules  regarding  the  feeding  of 
the  different  classes  of  live  stock  which,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  feeding  standards  and  the  discussion  of  the  nutritive 
value  of  the  different  feeds,  should  enable  the  inexperienced 
feeder  to  formulate  at  least  fairly  satisfactory  rations.  This 
point  has  also  been  kept  in  mind  in  treating  of  the  feeding 
values  of  the  different  feeds,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
make  specific  rather  than  general  statements  regarding  the 
amounts,  proportions,  and  combinations  of  feeds  in  the  rations 
of  different  classes  of  farm  animals.  It  has  also  seemed  of 
value  to  insert  illustrations  of  the  principal  crops  used  for 
feeding. 

It  has  seemed  desirable,  partly  in  order  to  avoid  duplication, 
to  discuss  the  use  of  each  of  the  principal  feeds  for  the  differ- 
ent species  and  classes  of  live  stock  rather  than  to  devote 
separate  chapters  to  the  feeding  of  the  different  classes  of  farm 
animals.  For  example,  under  the  discussion  of  corn,  its  use  is 
given  in  the  rations  of  growing  cattle,  colts,  pigs,  and  lambs  ; 
fattening  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep  ;  breeding  cattle,  horses,  hogs, 
and  sheep  ;  dairy  cows  ;  and  work  horses. 

In  addition  to  the  discussion  of  the  nutritive  value  of  feeds 
and  rations,  the  author  has  given  particular  attention  to  their 
fertilizing  values,  a  phase  which  is  often  neglected  both  by  the 
student  and  the  stockman. 

The  author  is  deeply  indebted  to  Professor  H.  S,  Grindley, 
Dr.  H.  H.  Mitchell,  Professor  W.  C.  Coffey,  Professor  H.  P. 
Rusk,  Professor  J.  L.  Edmonds,  Mr.  W.  J.  Carmichael,  Islv.  C. 
I.  Newlin,  and  Mr.  R.  S.  Hulce  of  the  University  of  Illinois, 


PRE  FA  CE  Vll 

to  Dr.  W.  E.  Joseph  of  the  Montana  Agricultural  College,  and 
to  Professor  J.  M.  Evvard  of  the  Iowa  State  College  for  many 
valuable  suggestions  and  criticisms,  and  he  extends  to  them  his 
sincere  thanks.  He  also  thanks  the  Illinois  Experiment  Sta- 
tion for  the  use  of  unpublished  data ;  and  The  Macmillan 
Company,  The  Chicago  Medical  Book  Company,  The  W.  B. 
Saunders  Publishing  Company,  Bailliere,  Tindall  and  Cox, 
Professor  H.  W.  Mumford,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  United  States  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Ohio  Ex- 
periment Station,  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  Kentucky 
Experiment  Station,  Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  Penn- 
sylvania Experiment  Station,  Vermont  Experiment  Station, 
Missouri  Experiment  Station,  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  Cor- 
nell Experiment  Station,  and  Illinois  Experiment  Station  for 

the  use  of  illustrations. 

SLEETER   BULL. 

Urbana,  Illinois 
July,  1916. 


CONTENTS 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 


PA6B 

Introduction      .......••    xvii 

The  Chemical  Composition  of  Feedingstuffs       .         .  1 

The  Chemical  Composition  of  Farm  Animals       .         .  25 

The  Digestion  of  the  Nutrients 34 

The  Digestibility  of  Feedingstuffs      ....  56 

Functions  of  the  Feed  Nutrients  in  the  Animal  Body  76 
Energy  in  Feedingstuffs  and  its  Uses  in  the  Animal 

Body 92 

The  Compounding  of  Rations 107 

The  Feed  Requirements  of  Farm  Animals  .         .         .  119 

Grains  and  Seeds 1^' 

The  Cereal  By-products 188 

The  Oil  By-products 206 

The  Packinghouse  By-products 216 

Miscellaneous  Concentrates 221 

The  Hays 232 

Fodders  and  Stovers 256 

The  Straws 263 

Pasture  or  Forage,  and  Soiling  Crops         .         .         .  266 

Silage 287 

Miscellaneous  Roughages 296 

The  Efficiency  of  Rations 305 

The  Fertilizing  Values  of  Feedingstuffs  .         .         .320 

The  Valuation  of  Feedingstuffs 330 

Appendix ^^^ 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PIGUKE  PAGK 

1.  Composition  of  steers  from  100  to  1200  pounds.    (T.  L.  Haecker, 

Minnesota  Experiment  Station) 29 

2.  Porterhouse  steak  from  a  prime  steer.     Note  the  "marbling." 

(Illinois  Experiment  Station) 32 

3.  Digestive    tract   of    man  —  schematic.         (Paton,    Veterinary 

Physiology,  Chicago  Medical  Book  Company)     .         .         .35 

4.  Stomach  of  the  horse.      (Sisson,  Veterinary  Anatomy,  W.  B. 

Saunders  Publishing  Company) 36 

5.  Csecum  of  the  horse.     (Smith,  Manual  of  Veterinary  Physiology, 

Bailliere,  Tindall  and  Cox) 37 

6.  Head  of  cow,  showing  some  of  the  salivary  glands.      (Sisson, 

Veterinary  Anatomy,  W.  B.  Saunders  Publishing  Company)       38 

7.  Digestive  tract  of  the  horse.      (United  States  Department  of 

Agriculture) 39 

8.  Stomach  of  a  sheep.    (United  States  Department  of  Agriculture)       44 

9.  Cross-section    of    mucous   membrane    of    the    small    intestine. 

(Jordan,  Principles  of  Human  Nutrition,  The  Macmillan 
Company) 48 

10.  Longitudinal  section  of  a  villus.     (Jordan,  Principles  of  Human 

Nutrition,  The  Macmillan  Company) 49 

11.  Loop  of  small  intestine  of  the  horse  during  active  absorption. 

(Smith,  Manual  of  Veterinary  Physiology,  Bailliere,  Tin- 
dall and  Cox)        50 

12.  Digestion  harness  on  a  pig      (Illinois  Experiment  Station)         .       57 

13.  These  pigs  were  fed  a  ration  deficient  in  phosphorus.     (Wis- 

consin Experiment  Station) 78 

14.  These  pigs  were  fed  the  same  ration  as  those  in  Figure  13,  with 

the  addition  of  phosphorus  in  the  form  of  calcium  phos- 
phate.    (Wisconsin  Experiment  Station)    ....       79 

15.  Abnormal  bones  from  hogs  whose  rations  were  low  in  calcium 

(corn  alone,  and  corn  and  soybeans).     (Ohio  Experiment 
Station)         . 80 


XU  ILL  US  TRA  TIONS 

FIGrBE  PAG« 

16.  The  ration  of  these  pigs  was  deficient  in  the  amount  and  quality 

of  protein.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station)  ....      83 

17.  The  ration  of  these  pigs  contained  sufficient  protein  of  the  proper 

quality.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station)        ....       84 

18.  The  effect  of  the  amount  and  kind  of  protein  upon  the  bones 

of  growing  pigs.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station)  .         .         .       85 

19.  Pigs  at  the  beginning  of  a  196-day  feeding  period  upon  corn 

alone.     (Kentucky  Experiment  Station)      ....       86 

20.  The  same  pigs  as  shown  in  Figure  19  after  196  days  of  feeding 

corn  alone.     (Kentucky  Experiment  Station)      ...       87 

21.  Section  of  bomb  calorimeter.    (Connecticut  (Storrs)  Experiment 

Station) 94 

22.  Respiration  calorimeter  at  the  Institute  for  Animal  Nutrition, 

State  College,  Pa.     (H.  P.  Armsby,  Pennsylvania  Experi- 
ment Station) 96 

23.  Cross-sections   of  haystacks   of   different   shapes   showing  the 

corresponding  values  f or  '  *  F. "    ( United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture) 117 

24.  A  self-feeder  for  cattle.     (Mumford,  Beef  Production)       .         .  153 

25.  A  self-feeder  for  hogs.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station)       .         .  154 

26.  Corn  production  in  the  United  States.     (United  States  Census)  158 

27.  An  ear  of  dent  com.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The 

Macmillan  Company) 160 

28.  Cross-section  of  a  kernel  of  dent  corn.    (Livingston,  Field  Crop 

Production,  The  Macmillan  Company)         ....     160 

29.  An  ear  of  flint  corn.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The 

Macmillan  Company) 161 

30.  Cross-section  of  a  kernel  of  flint  corn.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop 

Production,  The  Macmillan  Company)         ....     161 

31.  Distribution  of  oat  production  in  the  United  States.     (United 

States  Census,  1910) 170 

32.  Ergot  in  a  head  of  rye.     (Duggar,  Southern  Field  Crops,  The 

Macmillan  Company) 175 

33.  A  head  of  barley.     (Living.ston,  Field  Crop  Production.  The 

Macmillan  Company) 176 

34.  Distribution  of  barley  production  in  the  United  States.    (United 

States  Census,  1910) 177 

35.  A  head  of  emmer.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The 

Macmillan  Company) 178 


ILL  US  TRA  TIONS  xiii 

FIGTTRE  PAGE 

36.  A  head  of  spelt.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The 

Macmillan  Company) 179 

37.  Heads  of  the  principal  types  of  sorghums.     (Montgomery,  The 

Corn  Crops,  The  Macmillan  Company)        ....     180 

38.  Seeds  of  the  principal  types  of  grain  sorghums.     (Montgomery, 

The  Corn  Crops,  The  Macmillan  Company)         .        .         .     181 

39.  A  panicle  of  rice.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The 

Macmillan  Company) 182 

40.  Ten  varieties  of  cowpeas.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Mac- 

millan Company) .183 

41.  Ten  varieties  of  soybeans.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Mac- 

millan Company) 184 

42.  Pods  of  cowpeas  and  soybeans.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Pro- 

duction, The  Macmillan  Company) 184 

43.  Root  of  peanut.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The  Mac- 

millan Company) 185 

44.  A  cotton  plant.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The  Mac- 

millan Company) 186 

45.  Structure  of  the  corn  kernel.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station)      .     189 

46.  Section  of  wheat  kernel.     (Jordan,  The  Feeding  of  Animals, 

The  Macmillan  Company) 194 

47.  Weeds  growing  from  seed  found  in  a  commercial  feed  con- 

taining screenings.     (Vermont  Experiment  Station)   .         .     200 

48.  Buckwheat  in  bloom.    (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The 

Macmillan  Company) 204 

49.  Distribution  of  hay  and  forage  in  the  United  States.     (United 

States  Census,  1910) 233 

50.  Red  clover.     (Livingston,   Field   Crop  Production,  The   Mac- 

millan Company) 234 

51.  Production  of  clover  in  the  United  States.    (Hitchcock,  A  Text- 

book of  Grasses,  The  Macmillan  Company)  .        .         .     235 

52.  An  alfalfa  plant.    (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The  Mac- 

millan Company) 237 

53.  Distribution  of  alfalfa  in  the  United  States.     (United  States 

Census,  1910) 238 

54.  Arrangements  of  leaflets  of  alfalfa  and  clover.     (Livingston, 

Field  Crop  Production,  The  Macmillan  Company)       .         .     239 
65.   Alsike  clover.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The  Mac- 
millan Company) 241 


Xiv  ILL  us  TRA  TIONS 

FIGURE  PAGK 

56.  Sweet  clover.    (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan  Company)     242 

57.  A  crimson  clover  plant.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production, 

The  Macmillan  Company) 243 

68.    Field  pea.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan  Company)   .  244 

59.  Cowpea.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan  Company)      ,  245 

60.  A  soybean  plant.      (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The 

Macmillan  Company) '     .  246 

61.  Hairy  vetch.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan  Company)  247 

62.  Timothy.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan  Company)    .  248 

63.  Production  of  timothy  in  the  United  States.     (Hitchcock,  A 

Textbook  of  Grasses,  The  Macmillan  Company)  .         .     249 

64.  Common    millet.     (Voorhees,   Forage    Crops,   The   Macmillan 

Company) 250 

65.  German    millet.     (Voorhees,    Forage    Crops,    The    Macmillan 

Company) 251 

66.  Hungarian  millet.     (Voorhees,  Forage  Crops,  The  Macmillan 

Company) 251 

67.  A  field  of  Sudan-grass.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan 

Company) 252 

68.  Red  top.     (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The  Macmillan 

Company) 253 

69.  Orchard-grass.     (Piper,  Forage   Plants,  The  Macmillan  Com- 

pany)     254 

70.  Bermuda-grass.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan  Com- 

pany)     255 

71.  Field  of  orange  sorghum.     (Voorhees,  Forage  Crops,  The  Mac- 

millan Company) 258 

72.  A  field  of  black-hulled  white  kafir.     (Duggar,  Southern  Field 

Crops,  The  Macmillan  Company) 259 

73.  Field  of  milo.     (Montgomery,  The  Corn  Crops,  The  Macmillan 

Company)- 260 

74.  Showing  seed  per  acre,  approximate  time  of  planting  and  feed- 

ing different  soiling  crops.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station)  .     269 

75.  Field  of  velvet  beans.     (Duggar,  Southern  Field  Crops,  The 

Macmillan  Company) 275 

76.  A  field  of  oats  and  peas.     (Voorhees,  Forage  Crops,  The  Mac- 

millan Company) 276 

77.  Panicles  of  Canada  blue  grass  and  Kentucky  blue  grass.    (Piper, 

Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan  Company)    ....     279 


ILL  US  TRA  TIONS  XV 

FI6TJKE  PAGE 

78.  Brome-grass.    (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan  Company)  282 

79.  Hogging  down  corn.     (Iowa  Experiment  Station)      .        .         .  284 

80.  Meadow-fescue.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants,  The  Macmillan  Com- 

pany)      285 

81.  Mangels.     (Cornell  Experiment  Station) 297 

82.  Sugar  beet.       (Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production,  The    Mac- 

millan Company) 298 

83.  Carrots.     (Cornell  Experiment  Station) 299 

84.  Rutabagas.     (Cornell  Experiment  Station)         ....  300 

85.  Cassava.     (Duggar,    Southern    Field    Crops,    The    Macmillan 

Company) 301 

8G.    Hogs  in  rape.     (Missouri  Experiment  Station)  ....  302 

87.    Kohlrabi.    (Cornell  Experiment  Station) 303 


INTRODUCTION 

Any  study  of  scientific  agriculture  should  include  a  study 
of  stock  feeding,  inasmuch  as  15  per  cent  of  the  total  farm 
capital  of  this  country  is  invested  in  farm  animals,  and  all 
these  animals  must  be  fed.  According  to  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  there  are  25,000,000  horses  and 
mules,  59,000,000  cattle,  52,000,000  sheep,  and  65,000,000  hogs 
in  the  United  States.  77.6  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop,  59.0  per 
cent  of  the  oats  crop,  32.5  per  cent  of  the  barley  crop,  and  80.0 
per  cent  of  the  hay  crop  are  fed  to  animals  on  the  farm.  These 
figures  do  not  take  into  consideration  the  animals  of  the  cities. 
The  value  of  these  crops  is  something  over  $2,270,000,000. 
or  if  one  includes  the  horses  of  the  cities,  the  total  feed  bill 
of  this  country  is  at  least  $2,500,000,000  per  year  exclusive  of 
the  enormous  amounts  of  money  spent  for  commercial  feeds 
not  grown  on  the  farm,  such  as  bran,  cottonseed  meal,  etc. 
All  together  the  animals  of  the  United  States  produce  about 
$5,000,000,000  worth  of  products  yearly,  —  a  sum  nearly  as 
great  as  the  value  of  our  total  crops. 

No  matter  what  phase  of  agriculture  a  man  expects  to  make 
his  life  work,  whether  he  is  a  dairyman,  a  live  stock  farmer, 
an  orchardist,  a  grain  farmer,  or  a  market  gardener,  he  is  cer- 
tain to  need  at  least  a  general  knowledge  of  the  feeding  of 
farm  animals.  There  is  no  type  or  system  of  agriculture 
which  does  not  necessitate  the  use  and,  consequently,  the 
feeding  of  some  animals.     To  the  specialist  in  animal  or  dairy 

xvii 


XVlll  INTRODUCTION 

husbandry,  a  knowledge  of  the  best  feeding  practices  is  of 
utmost  importance. 

Within  recent  years  many  factors  have  arisen  so  affecting 
the  live  stock  industry  that  it  is  imperative  that  the  successful 
breeder  and  feeder  must  have  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
fundamental,  scientific  principles  underlying  the  art  of  stock 
feeding.  The  great  increase  in  the  value  of  farm  land,  espe- 
cially in  the  corn-belt,  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  range, 
and  the  consequent  increase  in  the  value  of  feedingstuffs  and 
of  live  stock  require  that  the  stockman  take  advantage  of 
every  aid  which  science  and  experience  offer  in  order  to  make 
his  business  a  financial  success. 

There  is,  in  many  cases,  a  large  waste  in  the  feeding  of  our 
farm  animals.  Many  of  our  good  farmers  are  feeding  rations 
which  although  giving  good  results  are  not  as  economical  as 
others  which  would  give  the  same  results ;  others  do  not 
obtain  the  best  results  although  they  feed  a  more  expensive 
ration.  Greater  elhciency  and  greater  economy  in  a  great 
many  cases  will  result  from  the  application  of  a  few  general 
scientihc  principles. 

New  or  unfamiliar  crops,  as  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  sweet 
clover,  rape,  Sudan-grass,  etc.,  necessitate  a  wider  knowledge 
of  feeding  values.  Also  the  successful  feeder  must  have  a 
knowledge  of  the  feeding  values  of  commercial  feeds  and  by- 
products from  the  manufacture  of  human  foods,  as  tankage, 
beet  pulp,  distillers'  grains,  the  oil  meals,  etc.  One  or  two 
generations  ago  the  feeds  commonly  used  for  live  stock  were 
usually  restricted  to  the  grains  and  roughages  grown  on  the 
farm.  However,  with  the  great  increase  in  the  value  of  land, 
farm  animals,  and  farm  crops,  knowledge  of  the  feeding  value 
of  the  farm  crops  is  not  sufficient,  but  the  feeder  must  also 
be  familiar  with  the  feeding  value  and  general  adaptability  of 


INTRODUCTION  Xix 

the  large  number  of  by-products  on  the  market,  especially  as 
these  feeds  vary  considerably  in  price  and  even  more  in  nutri- 
tive value.  Most  economical  feeding  is  therefore  only  possible 
when  the  relative  values  of  these  purchased  feeds  and  the 
farm  grown  feeds  are  clearly  understood.  Oftentimes  a  man 
can  sell  to  good  advantage  a  part  of  the  feeds  produced  upon 
the  farm  and  buy  commercial  feeds  for  his  live  stock.  On  the 
other  hand  many  farmers  buy  commercial  feeds  at  prices  much 
above  their  true  value.  Also  the  manures  from  some  feeds 
have  a  much  higher  fertilizing  value  than  the  manures  from 
others,  thus  necessitating  a  knowledge  of  the  fertilizing  values 
of  feedingstuffs. 

A  partial  solution  to  the  problem  of  the  "high  cost"  of 
living  may  be  found  in  rational  stock  feeding.  A  large  part 
of  our  farm  crops  are  unfit  for  human  food.  However,  by 
feeding  these  rough  feeds  to  meat  or  dairy  animals,  we  may 
convert  an  otherwise  useless  product  into  the  most  nutritious 
of  foods.  Many  farmers,  especially  west  of  Ohio,  burn  tons 
of  corn  stover  and  straw  every  year  because  there  is  no  market 
for  them  and  they  have  no  live  stock  to  eat  them.  As  you 
will  learn  later,  one-third  of  the  feeding  value  of  the  corn  crop 
is  in  the  stover.  However,  the  only  way  to  recover  that  third 
and  make  it  fit  for  human  use  is  to  feed  it  to  animals  and 
convert  it  into  meat  or  milk,  or  wool.  Our  soil  experts  tell 
us  that  in  order  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  our  soil  econom- 
ically we  must  introduce  a  legume  into  the  crop  rotation.  To 
do  this  and  make  the  most  profi't  from  our  land,  we  must  keep 
live  stock  in  order  to  convert  the  roughage  of  the  rotation  into 
human  food. 


THE  PRmCIPLES  OF  FEEDING 
FARM  ANIMALS 

CHAPTER   I 

THE  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS 

In  order  for  the  student  of  stockfeeding  to  acquire  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  subject,  it  is  necessary  for  him 
to  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  chemical  composition  of 
feedingstuffs.  The  composition  of  feedingstuffs  is  quite 
variable,  and  their  feeding  value  depends  to  a  large  extent 
upon  their  composition.  When  asked  concerning  the  value 
of  a  feed  with  which  one  is  unfamiliar,  one  usually  refers  to 
its  chemical  composition,  although  other  factors  also  have 
considerable  influence,  as  will  be  explained  later. 

Elements.  —  Chemistry  teaches  that  all  vegetable  and 
animal  substances  are  composed  ultimately  of  chemical 
elements.  Of  the  83  chemical  elements  now  known,  ap- 
parently only  12  are  of  importance  from  the  standpoint  of 
stockfeeding.  These  are  as  follows :  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  sulphur, 
sodium,  magnesium,  chlorine,  and  iron.^     Other  elements, 

^  Dr.  C.  G.  Hopkins,  in  "Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture," 
presents  the  following  memory  key  to  the  elements  essential  to  plant  life  : 
"C.  Hopk'ns'  CaFe,  Mg, "  if  "Mg"  stands  for  "mighty  good"  and  "I" 
is  omitted  for  modesty.  If  the  student  then  remembers  that  all  animals 
require  salt,  NaCl,  he  has  a  list  of  the  important  elements. 
B  1 


nBf ERTT  uuAtr 
H.  C.  State  Cplb|t 


2  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

as  iodine,  fluorine,  silicon,  aluminium,  copper,  arsenic,  and 
manganese,  often  occur  in  small  amounts  in  plant  and  animal 
life,  but  they  are  not  of  sufficient  importance  in  this  con- 
nection to  warrant  their  further  mention. 

Compounds. — Although  vegetable  and  animal  substances 
consist  primarily  of  chemical  elements,  these  elements,  with 
the  exception  of  small  amounts  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  do 
not  exist  in  the  plant  or  animal  in  the  free,  elemental  state, 
but  they  occur  in  combination  with  one  another  to  form  com- 
pounds, such  as  sugar,  starch,  fat,  and  water.  The  compounds 
which  occur  in  plant  and  animal  fife  are  large  in  number  and 
vary  considerably  in  their  chemical  composition,  their  proper- 
ties, and  their  nutritive  values.  In  fact,  these  compounds  are 
so  numerous  and  varied  that  the  chemist  has  attempted  to 
simpHfy  their  discussion  by  dividing  them  into  five  classes,  put- 
ting all  compounds  of  similar  composition,  properties,  and  nu- 
tritive value  into  the  same  class.  These  classes  are  as  follows  : 
(1)  water,  (2)  mineral  matter  or  ash,  (3)  crude  protein,  (4)  car- 
bohydrates, and  (5)  fats.  The  first  two  classes  are  incombusti- 
ble, and  are  called  inorganic  compounds,  while  the  last  three 
classes  are  combustible,  and  are  called  organic  compounds. 

Nutrients.  —  These  classes  of  compounds  often  are  spoken 
of  as  nutrients.  Although  the  term  is  used  rather  loosely, 
a  nutrient  may  be  defined  as  any  feed  constituent  or  group  of 
constituents  of  the  same  general  chemical  composition  that 
is  capable  of  Hberating  energy  or  serving  for  the  production 
of  tissue  in  the  animal  body.  In  other  words,  it  is  any  feed 
constituent  or  group  of  constituents  which  may  aid  in  the 
support  of  animal  fife.  Thus  water,  mineral  matter,  crude 
protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fats  are  usually  regarded  as 
the  nutrients  of  feedingstuffs. 


THE   CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF   FEEDINGSTUFFS      3 


The  elementary  composition  of  these  classes  of  com- 
pounds or  nutrients  is  shown  in  the  following  diagram,  which 
is  a  modification  of  a  similar  diagram  presented  by  Jordan.^ 


All  vegetable 

and     animal 

matter 


Inorganic 
compounds 


Water 


x\sh  or  mineral 
matter 


Organic 

compounds  ^ 


Crude  protein 


f  Hydrogen 
\  Oxygen 

Oxygen 
Sulphur 
Phosphorus 
Carbon 
Chlorine 
Sodium 
Potassium 
Calcium 
Magnesium 
.  Iron 

f  Carbon 
Hydrogen 
Oxygen 
Nitrogen 
Sulphur  ~ 

.  Phosphorus 


{Carbon 
Hydrogen 
Oxygen 


{Carbon 
Hydrogen 
Oxygen 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  feedingstuffs  is  given 
in  Table  28  of  the  Appendix. 


WATER 

Water,  composed  of  the  elements  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
is  present  in  variable  amounts  in  all  vegetable  and  animal 
substances.     It  forms  a  large  portion  of  the  weight  of  such 

1  "  The  Feeding  of  Animals,"  p.  30.  ^  Generally.  ^  Sometimes. 


4  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

substances  as  green  plants,  fresh  meats,  and  milk,  and  in 
many  cases  it  can  be  detected  by  sight  and  touch.  Even 
substances  like  starch,  bran,  wood,  straw,  and  corn,  which 
appear  to  be  quite  dry,  usually  contain  from  2  to  15  per  cent 
of  water.  The  water  content  of  plants  depends  upon  the 
species,  the  degree  of  maturity,  and  the  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  soil.  Thus  fresh  timothy  grass  contains  about  60  per 
cent  of  water,  while  mangels  contain  90  per  cent;  im- 
mature plants  contain  more  water  than  mature  ones; 
and  plants  grown  in  a  moist  soil  contain  more  than  those 
grown  in  a  dry  soil.  Water  in  the  plant  acts  as  a  solvent 
for  the  different  forms  of  plant  food  and  transfers  them  from 
one  part  of  the  plant  to  another.  It  also  aids  in  imparting 
firmness  and  rigidity  to  the  plant.  This  function  is  illus- 
trated well  by  the  withering  of  a  plant  when  its  water  is  re- 
moved by  evaporation  or  drying. 

Water  in  Feedingstufifs.  —  The  stock-feeder  should  have  a 
knowledge  of  the  moisture  content  of  feedingstuffs  for  at 
least  two  reasons  :  first,  the  amount  of  dry  substance  in  a 
feed  largely  determines  its  nutritive  value ;  consequently 
in  using  feeds  which  contain  large  amounts  of  water,  as 
silage,  wet  beet  pulp,  milk,  wet  brewers'  grains,  and  mangels 
(stockbeets),  one  must  feed  a  larger  amount  than  when 
using  feeds  which  are  low  in  moisture  content  in  order  to 
supply  the  same  amount  of  dry  matter.  Second,  the  keep- 
ing qualities  of  feeds  depend  largely  upon  their  low  water 
content.  Such  feedingstuffs  as  the  hays,  grains,  meals, 
and  oil  cakes,  when  stored  in  bulk,  are  very  liable  to  fer- 
ment or  mold  if  they  contain  more  than  18  to  20  per  cent  of 
moisture.  This  usually  injures  their  quality  and  decreases 
their  nutritive  value. 


THE   CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS      5 


The  amount  of  moisture  in  a  feedingstuff  is  determined 
in  the  chemical  laboratory  by  drying  a  weighed  sample  of 
the  feed  in  a  drying  oven  at  a  temperature  of  212°  F.  until 
all  the  water  is  driven  off.  The  dried  sample  then  is  weighed, 
the  loss  in  weight  representing  the  amount  of  water  driven 
oiT.  The  percentage  of  water  is  obtained  by  dividing  the 
original  weight  of  the  sample  into  the  weight  of  the  water, 
and  multiplying  the  result  by  100. 

Table  1.  —  Percentages  of  Water  in  the  Different  Classes 
OF  Feedingstuffs  1 


Oil  by-products      . 

7  to  11 

Leguminous  hays 

9  to  15 

Packinghouse         by- 

Stovers and  fodders   . 

8  to  40 

products    .     .     . 

7  to  11 

Grass  pastures       .     . 

62  to  80 

Oil-bearing  seeds    . 

.       8  to    9 

Silage 

70  to  80 

Cereal  by-products 

6  to  12 

Leguminous    pastures 

70  to  85 

Cereal  grains     .     . 

10  to  12 

Roots 

86  to  91 

Straws      .... 

7  to  16 

Milk  and   milk-prod- 

Grass hays         .     . 

7  to  15 

ucts      

87  to  94 

Leguminous  seeds 

7  to  12 

Table  1  shows  the  average  percentages  of  water  occurring 
in  the  different  classes  of  the  common  feedingstuffs.  The 
data  of  this  table  show  that  the  amounts  of  water  in  the 
different  classes  of  feedingstuffs  are  quite  variable.  Milk 
and  the  root  crops  contain  the  largest  amounts  of  water, 
—  86  to  94  per  cent.  Pastures  and  silage  also  contain  large 
amounts,  —  62  to  85  per  cent.  Stover  and  fodder  contain 
from  8  to  40  per  cent  water.  The  amount  may  vary  con- 
siderably, depending  largely  upon  the  method  of  curing. 
The  hays,  straws,  and  legume  seeds  all  contain  medium 
amounts  of  water,  —  7   to   16  per  cent,   while  the  cereal 

1  These  values  represent  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  average  water 
content  of  the  common  feedingstuffs  included  under  each  class.  For  an 
explanation  of  this  classification  of  feedingstuffs,  see  Chapter  IX. 


6  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

grains  and  oil-bearing  seeds,  and  their  by-products,  and  the 
packinghouse  by-products  contain  the  smallest  amounts 
of  water,  —  7  to  12  per  cent. 

MINERAL  MATTER   OR   ASH 

The  mineral  matter  or  ash,  as  the  name  implies,  is  that 
part  of  the  feed  which  remains  after  the  combustion  of  the 
organic  substances.  Common  ashes  are  an  impure  form 
of  mineral  matter.  The  ash  consists  principally  of  the 
elements,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  and  sodium, 
in  the  form  of  oxides,  phosphates,  sulphates,  carbonates,  and 
chlorides.  However,  the  elements  or  radicles  found  in  the 
ash  are  not  necessarily  in  the  same  form  or  combination 
as  those  occurring  in  the  living  organism.  In  the  unburned 
substance,  some  of  these  elements  may  occur  in  different 
inorganic  combinations  with  each  other,  or  in  combination 
with  organic  substances.  Thus  sulphur  occurs  in  many  of 
the  proteins,  phosphorus  occurs  in  some  of  the  proteins 
and  in  other  organic  substances,  and  calcium  often  occurs 
in  combination  with  organic  acids.  During  the  combus- 
tion of  the  feed  the  organic  material  is  oxidized  and  driven 
off,  leaving  behind  these  elements  in  inorganic  combination. 
Further,  nitrates  and  nitrites  occur  in  small  quantities  in 
growing  plants  and  in  animals,  but  by  ignition  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  ash  these  acid  radicles  are  decomposed  and 
driven  off  while  the  metals  of  these  salts  are  combined 
with  other  acid  radicles. 

No  parts  or  products  of  either  plant  or  animal  life  are 
free  from  mineral  matter.  It  is  an  essential  constituent 
of  both  plants  and  animals.  The  mineral  elements  po- 
tassium,   calcium,    magnesium,   iron,    oxygen,    phosphorus. 


THE   CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS     1 

and  sulphur  are  necessary  for  the  proper  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  all  agricultural  plants  and,  in  addition  to  these 
elements,  sodium  and  chlorine  arc  essential  also  for  the 
nutrition  of  agricultural  animals. 

The  Mineral  Constituents  in  Feedingstuffs.  —  In  feed- 
ingstuffs,  potassium  is  found  in  greatest  amounts  in  the 
roughages,  as  corn  stover,  hays,  and  straws.  Fairly  large 
quantities  are  found  in  the  oil  by-products,  in  wheat  bran, 
in  milk,  in  tankage,  and  in  malt  sprouts,  while  the  ordinary 
cereal  grains  are  deficient  in  this  element. 

Calcium  is  especially  abundant  in  bone  meal,  tankage, 
and  leguminous  hays,  while  the  ordinary  grains  and  many 
of  their  by-products  are  deficient.  The  rations  of  young 
growing  animals  and  of  dairy  cows  are  hable  to  be  deficient 
in  this  element. 

Magnesium  is  most  abundant  in  the  oil  by-products 
and  in  wheat  bran.  It  also  occurs  in  considerable  quantity 
in  the  legume  hays  and  in  the  ordinary  grains.  The  straws 
and  roots  are  especially  low  in  this  element. 

The  quantity  of  iron  in  feedingstuffs  is  very  small  in  all 
cases,  but  it  is  probably  always  sufficient  except  under 
pathological  conditions. 

The  air  is  the  source  of  the  oxygen  to  the  animal  body. 

Phosphorus  occurs  abundantly  in  bone  meal,  tankage,  bran, 
middhngs,  oil  by-products,  and  legume  seeds.  The  grains  and 
legume  hays  contain  medium  amounts  of  this  element,  while 
dried  blood,  gluten  meal,  roots,  and  straws  contain  only 
small  amounts.  The  rations  of  the  young  growing  animal 
and  of  the  dairy  cow  are  apt  to  be  deficient  in  phosphorus. 

Sulphur  probably  is  found  in  small  but  sufficient  quantities 
in  all  feedingstuffs. 


8  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

Sodium  and  chlorine  must  be  furnished  to  nearly  all 
animals  in  the  form  of  sodium  chloride  or  common  salt, 
as  the  ordinary  feedingstuffs  do  not  supply  these  elements 
in  sufficient  amounts. 

The  amount  of  mineral  matter  or  ash  in  a  feedingstuff 
is  determined  by  igniting  a  weighed  sample  of  the  feed 
until  all  organic  matter  has  disappeared.  The  residue  is 
ash  or  mineral  matter.  The  weight  of  the  ash  divided 
by  the  original  weight  of  the  sample,  and  multipUed  by 
100,  gives  the  percentage  of  mineral  matter. 

Table  2. — Percentages  of  Mineral  Matter  in  the  Different 

Classes  of  Feedingstuffs  ^ 

Milk  and  milk  prod-  Oil-bearing  seeds    .  2.6  to    4.3 

nets         ....  0.4  to  0.8  Straws       .     .     .     .  3.2  to    5.8 

Roots 0.8  to  1.2  Stovers  and  fodders  3.7  to  12.0 

Silage 1. 1  to  2.8  Cereal  by-products  1.0  to    6.2 

Grass  pastures     .     .  1.0  to  2.8  Oil  by-products      .  4.0  to    6.7 

Cereal  grains  .     .     .  1.4  to  3.0  Grass  hays    .     .     .  3.9  to    7.9 

Leguminous   pas-  Leguminous  hays   .  6.7  to  10.7 

tures        .     .     .     .  1.3  to  3.5  Packinghouse     by- 
Leguminous  seeds    .  2.6  to  5.4  products    .     .     .  4.1  to  64.4 

Table  2  shows  the  average  percentages  of  mineral  matter 
in  the  different  classes  of  feedingstuffs.  This  table  shows 
that  the  packinghouse  by-products  are  quite  high  in  ash 
content, — 4.1  to  64.4  per  cent.  Especially  is  this  true  of 
bone  meal  and  tankage,  meat  scrap  and  blood  meal  being 
only  fairly  high.  Leguminous  hays  contain  fairly  large 
amounts,  —  7  to  11  per  cent,  as  also  do  the  non-legume 
hays,  the  oil  and  cereal  by-products,  the  straws,  the  oil- 
bearing  seeds,  and  the  legume  seeds,  —  2  to  8  per  cent. 

^  These  values  represent  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  average  con- 
tent of  naineral  matter  of  the  common  feedingstuffs  included  under  each 
class. 


THE   CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS     9 

As  a  rule,  the  cereal  grains,  silage,  and  roots,  are  quite  low 
in  ash,  —  1  to  3  per  cent. 

CRUDE    PROTEIN 

Crude  protein  includes  all  the  substances  of  the  plant 
or  animal  which  contain  the  element  nitrogen.  In  general, 
crude  protein  consists  of  two  sub-classes  of  substances : 
(1)  proteins,  often  called  true  protein,  and  (2)  non-proteins, 
which  is  an  abbreviation  for  ''  non-protein  nitrogen-contain- 
ing substances." 

Proteins.  —  In  every  living  organism  there  are  present 
highly  complex,  nitrogen-containing  compounds  to  which 
the  general  name  proteins  has  been  given.  These  sub- 
stances form  the  chief  part  of  the  solid  matter  of  the  blood, 
muscles,  nerves,  glands,  and  organs  of  the  animal,  and 
occur  in  smaller  amounts  in  every  part  of  plants,  but  es- 
pecially in  the  seeds.  They  form  an  essential  part  of  the 
protoplasm  of  every  cell,  plant  or  animal.  They  also  are 
important  constituents  of  the  cell  wall  of  all  animal  cells, 
and  are  always  present  in  the  fluids  which  surround  the 
cell.  As  a  nutrient,  the  proteins  occupy  an  important 
position,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  the  only  nutrient 
which  contains  nitrogen  in  forms  available  to  the  animal 
body.  Thus,  they  are  necessary  not  only  for  the  growth 
and  development,  but  also  for  the  life,  of  every  animal. 
Water,  mineral  matter,  and  protein  are  absolutely  essential 
constituents  of  the  rations  of  all  animals.  An  animal  soon 
dies  if  water,  mineral  matter,  or  protein  is  withheld  from 
the  ration.  If  an  insufficient  amount  of  any  of  these  nu- 
trients is  given,  the  animal  fails  to  develop  properly,  and 
in  extreme  cases  dies. 


10  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 

The  proteins  arc  composed  of  the  elements  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxj'-gen,  nitrogen,  and  usually  sulphur  in  varying 
proportions.  Some  proteins  also  contain  phosphorus,  while 
other  elements  are  found  sometimes.  The  typical  protein 
molecule  usually  contains  from  15  to  19,  or  an  average  of 
16  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  52  per  cent  of  carbon,  7  per  cent 
of  hydrogen,  22  per  cent  of  oxygen,  and  0.5  to  2  per  cent 
of  sulphur.  The  chemical  structure  of  the  protein  molecule 
is  very  complex,  and  neither  the  formulae  nor  molecular 
weights  of  any  of  the  proteins  have  been  determined  defi- 
nitely. An  idea  of  their  complex  nature  may  be  obtained 
from  the  following  approximate  formulae  of  some  common 
proteins  :  egg  albumin,  C696H1125N175S6O220 ;  serum  albumin, 
C'694  H1045N175S2O225 ;    oxyhemoglobin,  C656Hii6iN207S2Fe02io. 

However,  it  has  been  determined  that  the  complex  pro- 
teins are  made  up  of  amino  acids,  which  are  comparatively 
simple  organic  acids  in  which  one  or  two  "  amino,"  or 
NH2  groups  are  substituted  for  an  equal  number  of  hydrogen 
atoms.  There  are  18  or  more  of  these  amino  acids  known. 
Some  of  them  occur  in  all  proteins;  others  are  absent,  or 
are  present  in  only  small  amounts,  in  certain  proteins. 
Furthermore,  different  proteins  may  be  formed  from  the 
same  amino  acids  arranged  in  different  combinations. 
Thus  one  finds  that  the  proteins  are  very  numerous.  The 
amino  acids  have  been  compared  to  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 
"  When  they  are  arranged  together  they  can  make  many 
different  proteins  just  as  there  are  many  different  words  in 
the  dictionary."  ^ 

There  are  considerable  differences  in  the  nutritive  values 
of  the  different  amino  acids,  some  of  them  being  essential 

^  Lusk,  "  The  Basis  of  Nutrition,"  p.  17. 


THE   CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS      11 

to  life  itself,  while  others  are  essential  to  growth  only. 
Therefore  different  proteins  may  differ  considerably  in 
nutritive  value.  For  example,  an  animal  will  starve  to 
death  on  the  protein,  gelatin,  because  it  is  lacking  in  two 
of  the  amino  acids  which  are  essential  to  the  animal  organ- 
ism, viz.,  tyrosine,  and  tryptophane.  Another  example  is 
zein,  the  principal  protein  of  corn,  which  is  lacking  in  two 
essential  amino  acids,  lysine  and  tryptophane.  Conse- 
quently, in  practical  feeding  it  is  well  that  the  feeder 
should  know  something  about  the  amino  acid  content  of 
the  proteins  in  order  to  make  sure  that  he  is  providing  the 
proper  kind  as  well  as  the  proper  amount  of  protein  in 
the  ration. 

Non-proteins.  —  The  non-proteins  are  substances  which 
contain  the  element  nitrogen  but  which  are  not  proteins. 
In  most  cases,  the  non-proteins  are  simply  proteins  in  the 
process  of  formation  or  decomposition.  They  consist, 
principally,  of  amino  acids,  amides,  ammonia,  and  other 
compounds,  which  nature  ultimately  would  build  up  into 
the  complex  proteins ;  or  else  they  are  the  products  of 
complex  proteins  which  have  been  decomposed  and  broken 
down  \vith  the  formation  of  amino  acids  and  other  simpler 
substances.  Thus  non-proteins  are  especially  abundant 
in  immature  plants,  where  the  protein  formation  has  not 
been  completed,  and  in  fermented  feeds,  as  silage,  where 
the  proteins  have  been  decomposed  partially.  Ripe  grains 
are  comparatively  low  in  them.  The  nutritive  value  of 
a  proper  mixture  of  the  non-proteins  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
true  proteins.  However,  if  they  are  not  present  in  the 
proper  proportions,  the  non-proteins  ^vill  not  be  as  valuable 
as  most  proteins. 


12  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Crude  Protein  in  Feedingstuffs.  —  In  the  ordinary  analysis 
of  feedingstuffs,  the  proteins  and  the  non-proteins  are  not 
determined  separately,  but  they  are  determined  together 
as  crude  protein.  The  chemical  determination  of  crude 
protein  is  based  upon  the  fact  already  noted,  that  proteins 
contain  an  average  of  16  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  Thus  to 
determine  the  amount  of  crude  protein  in  a  feedingstuff, 
the  amount  of  total  nitrogen  in  a  weighed  sample  is  found 
and  then  multiplied  by  6.25  to  obtain  the  amount  of  crude 
protein  in  the  sample.  (If  16  per  cent  of  the  weight  of 
protein  consists  of  nitrogen,  to  find  the  weight  of  the  total 
protein,  one  multiplies  the  weight  of  the  nitrogen  by  the 
number  of  times  16  per  cent  is  contained  in  100  per  cent, 
or  by  6.25.)  The  calculated  weight  of  the  crude  protein, 
divided  by  the  weight  of  the  sample  and  multiplied  by  100, 
gives  the  percentage  of  crude  protein  in  the  sample. 

Crude  protein  usually  is  the  most  expensive  nutrient  to 
buy  or  produce  and  the  one  most  often  lacking  in  farm 
rations,  especially  in  the  corn-belt,  where  corn  is  the  prin- 
cipal crop.  Table  3  shows  the  average  percentages  of  crude 
protein  in  the  different  classes  of  ordinary  feedingstuffs. 
The  packinghouse  by-products,  as  dried  blood,  tankage, 
and  meat  scraps,  contain  the  largest  amounts  of  crude 
protein,  —  24  to  84  per  cent.  Then  follow  in  approximately 
the  order  named,  the  various  oil  by-products,  —  18  to  45 
per  cent ;  leguminous  seeds,  —  20  to  36  per  cent ;  the  oil- 
bearing  seeds,  —  16  to  23  per  cent ;  the  cereal  by-products, 
—  10  to  31  per  cent ;  and  the  legume  hays,  —  13  to  19  per 
cent.  The  cereal  grains  are  only  medium  in  protein  con- 
tent, —  9  to  12  per  cent.  The  non-leguminous  hays,  straws, 
fodder,  stover,  fresh  grasses,  silage,  and  roots  contain  the 


THE   CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS      13 

smallest  amounts  of  crude  protein,  in  most  cases  ranging 
from  1  to  7  per  cent. 


Table  3. 


Percentages  of  Crude  Protein  in  the  Different 
Classes  of  Feedingstuffs  ^ 


Roots 1  to    2      Cereal  grains 


Silage 

Grass  pastures    . 
Milk    and    milk-prod- 
ucts         

Straws        

Leguminous  pastures  , 
Stovers  and  fodders    , 


1  to 
1  to 

3  to 
3  to 

3  to 

4  to  13 


Grass  hays     .     .     .     .     5  to    9 


Leguminous  hays 
Cereal  by-products 
Oil-bearing  seeds   . 
Leguminous  seeds 
Oil  by-products 
Packinghouse      by 
products    .     .     . 


9  to  12 
13  to  13 
10  to  19 
16  to  23 
20  to  36 
18  to  45 

24  to  84 


CARBOHYDRATES 

The  carbohydrates  are  of  very  great  importance  to  plant 
life.  They  are  the  most  abundant  constituent  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  They  not  only  make  up  the  cell  walls 
of  the  plant,  but  it  is  in  the  form  of  carbohydrates  that 
most  plants  store  up  reserve  food  material  in  the  cell  itself. 
They  are  present  also  in  very  minute  amounts  in  many 
animal  tissues  in  the  form  of  glycogen  or  animal  starch. 
Glycogen  is  found  in  largest  amounts  in  the  liver.  A  small 
amount  of  the  sugar  glucose  is  usually  found  in  the  blood 
and  muscles.  Carbohydrates  are  the  most  abundant 
nutrient  in  most  feedingstuffs,  which  fact,  together  with 
their  relative  cheapness,  makes  them  of  especial  importance 
to  the  stock-feeder. 

Familiar  forms  of  the  carbohydrates  are  glucose  or  grape 
sugar,  sucrose  or  cane  sugar,  lactose  or  milk  sugar,  the  starches, 
as  corn,  wheat,  and  potato  starch,  and  cellulose  or  vegetable  fiber. 

*  These  vahies  represent  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  average  crude 
protein  content  of  the  common  feedingstuffs  included  under  each  class. 


14  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

All  carbohydrates  are  composed  of  the  three  elements 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  the  two  latter  generally 
being  in  the  proportion  to  form  water  {i.e.  there  are  twice 
as  many  atoms  of  hydrogen  as  of  oxygen  in  the  molecule), 
from  which  the  name,  carbohydrate,  is  derived.  Thus  the 
chemical  formula  of  glucose  is  C6H12O6,  of  sucrose,  C12H22O11, 
and  of  starch,  (C6Hio05)n.  As  indicated  by  these  formulae, 
some  of  the  carbohydrates  are  comparatively  simple  com- 
pounds, others  are  more  complex,  while  still  others  are  very 
complex.  Glucose  or  grape  sugar  and  fructose  or  fruit 
sugar  are  the  simplest  carbohydrates  of  importance.  They 
are  represented  by  the  chemical  formula,  C6H12O6.  Sucrose 
or  cane  sugar,  lactose  or  milk  sugar,  and  maltose  or  malt 
sugar  are  more  complex  compounds  as  indicated  by  the 
formula  C12H22O11.  The  starches,  celluloses,  dextrins,  etc., 
are  complex  carbohydrates,  having  the  formula  (CeHioOs)^, 
the  n  representing  an  unknown  number.  The  pentosans 
are  complex  carbohydrates  having  the  formula  (C5H804)„. 
Under  the  proper  conditions,  the  complex  carbohydrates 
can  be  changed  to  the  simpler  forms.  Further  reference 
will  be  made  to  this  fact  under  the  discussion  of  the  digestion 
of  the  carbohydrates. 

On  account  of  their  difference  in  solubihty  and  nutritive 
value,  chemists  usually  divide  the  carbohydrates  of  feeding- 
stuffs  into  two  sub-classes,  nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen-free  Extract.  —  The  nitrogen-free  extract  con- 
sists largely  of  starches  and  sugars,  ^vith  small  amounts  of 
less  important  carbohydrates,  such  as  the  pentosans.  Starch 
is  the  principal  carbohydrate  found  in  the  nitrogen-free 
extract  of  most  feedingstuffs.     It  is  found  especially  in  the 


THE   CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS      15 

seeds  of  plants,  as  in  the  cereal  grains.  The  sugars  are 
found  principally  in  the  stem  and  roots  of  certain  plants, 
as  in  sorghum  and  sugar  beets. 

In  addition  to  the  carbohydrates,  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
usually  contains  small  amounts  of  organic  acids  and  other 
substances  which  are  not  carbohydrates.  Especially  is 
this  true  in  the  case  of  fermented  feeds,  such  as  silage. 
The  organic  acids  and  other  substances,  o^^dng  to  their 
small  amounts,  possess  only  a  small  nutritive  value,  but 
they  may  have  an  important  indirect  influence  upon  the 
value  of  a  feed  by  increasing  or  decreasing  its  palatability, 
or  through  some  special  physiological  effect. 

Nitrogen-free  Extract  in  Feedingstuffs.  —  The  percentage 
of  nitrogen-free  extract  in  a  feedingstuff  is  obtained  by  add- 
ing together  the  percentages  of  water,  mineral  matter,  crude 
protein,  fat,  and  crude  fiber,  and  subtracting  the  total  from 
100. 

Nitrogen-free  extract  is  the  most  abundant  and  the  cheap- 
est nutrient  produced  in  the  corn-belt.  The  cereal  grains 
contain  the  largest  amounts  of  nitrogen-free  extract,  — 
60  to  75  per  cent,  although  the  root  crops,  when  calculated 
on  the  water-free  basis,  also  contain  large  amounts.  The  by- 
products of  the  cereal  grains  contain  considerable  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  —  39  to  65  per  cent.  The  legume  seeds,  thg 
oil-bearing  seeds  and  their  by-products,  and  the  hays, 
straws,  fodders,  and  stovers,  contain  medium  amounts,  — 
23  to  52  per  cent.  Green  pasture  grasses  and  silage  contain 
small  amounts,  —  6  to  20  per  cent,  while  the  packinghouse 
by-products  contain  little  or  no  nitrogen-free  extract. 

The  average  percentages  of  nitrogen-free  extract  in  the 
various  classes  of  feedingstuffs  are  given  in  Table  4. 


16 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  4.  —  Percentages  of  Nitrogen-free    Extract  in   the 
Different  Classes  of  Feedingstuffs  ^ 


Packinghouse  by-prod- 

Oil by-products      . 

25  to  43 

ucts      

0  to    4 

Leguminous  hays 

31  to  44 

Milk    and    milk-prod- 

Straws     .... 

23  to  47 

ucts      

4  to    5 

Grass  hays    .     .     . 

37  to  49 

Roots 

5  to    7 

Stovers  and  fodders 

30  to  52 

Leguminous   pastures 

6  to  14 

Leguminous  seeds 

14  to  58 

Silage 

7  to  15 

Cereal  by-products 

39  to  65 

Grass  pastures       .     . 

7  to  20 

Cereal  grains     .     . 

60  to  75 

Oil-bearing  seeds 

21  to  28 

Crude  Fiber.  —  Crude  fiber  is  the  tough,  woody,  fibrous 
portion  of  plants.  It  is  made  up  principally  of  cellulose 
and  other  similar  substances,  together  with  some  i)entosans. 
Cellulose  is  composed  of  the  elements  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  and  is  one  of  the  complex  carl)ohydrates.  It 
forms  the  groundwork  of  all  vegetable  tissues,  the  walls 
of  all  plant  cells  consisting  of  cellulose.  Thus  it  is  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  plant  as  an  essential  constituent  of  every 
plant  cell.  It  is  seldom  found  pure  in  nature,  except  in 
the  young  and  tender  parts  of  plants,  but  usually  it  is  im- 
pregnated more  or  less  with  lignin,  which  is  a  carbohydrate 
that  is  similar  to,  but  harder  and  tougher  than,  cellulose. 

The  proportion  of  crude  filler  in  plants  varies  greatly 
with  the  species,  size,  and  degree  of  maturity  of  the  plant. 
As  a  rule,  large  plants  contain  more  than  small  plants, 
and  mature  plants  contain  more  than  immature  ones.  In 
general,  the  hardness  and  toughness  of  large  or  mature 
plants  are  due  to  their  increased  content  of  crude  fiber.  Also 
the  proportions  of  crude  fiber  in  the  different  parts  of  the 

1  These  values  represent  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  average  con- 
tent of  nitrogen-free  extract  of  the  common  feedingstuffs  included  under  each 
class. 


THE   CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS     17 

same  plant  are  greatly  unlike.  It  is  usually  most  abundant 
in  the  stem,  with  less  in  the  foliage,  and  least  in  the  seed. 
In  the  grains  and  seeds,  the  seed  coats  consist  largely  of 
cellulose,  while  but  Httle  is  found  in  the  interior.  Cellulose 
is  never  foimd  in  the  animal  body. 

Familiar  forms  of  crude  fiber  are  paper,  made  from  the 
fiber  of  straw,  flax,  wood,  or  hemp ;  cloth,  made  from  the 
fiber  of  cotton,  flax,  etc. ;  and  rope,  made  from  the  fiber  of 
hemp. 

Crude  Fiber  in  Feedingstufifs.  —  The  crude  fiber  in  feed- 
ingstuffs  is  determined  by  removing  all  other  substances, 
in  so  far  as  possible,  by  boiUng  a  w^eighed  sample  of  the  feed 
in  dilute  acid,  then  in  dilute  alkah,  and  then  washing  it 
with  water,  alcohol,  and  ether.  The  residue,  consisting  of 
crude  fiber  and  ash,  is  dried  and  weighed.  It  is  then 
ignited,  and  the  ash  is  weighed.  The  weight  of  the  ash 
deducted  from  the  weight  of  the  total  residue  represents 
the  weight  of  crude  fiber.  The  weight  of  the  original 
sample  divided  into  the  weight  of  the  crude  fiber  and 
multiplied  by  100  gives  the  percentage  of  crude  fiber  in 
the  feedingstuff. 

The  average  percentages  of  crude  fiber  in  the  various 
classes  of  ordinary  feedingstuff s  are  shown  in  Table  5.  It 
is  especially  abundant  in  the  husks  of  grains  and  seeds,  as 
barley,  oat,  and  cottonseed  hulls,  —  40  to  46  per  cent,  and 
in  straws,  hays,  stover,  and  fodder,  —  20  to  45  per  cent. 
Inasmuch  as  the  percentage  of  crude  fiber  is  higher  in  mature 
than  in  immature  plants,  the  late  cut  roughages  contain 
more  crude  fiber  than  early  cut  roughages.  The  cereal 
grains  and  most  of  their  by-products  contain  a  relatively 
small  amount,  —  1  to  12  per  cent,  while  feedingstuff s  of 


18 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


animal  origin,  as  milk,  dried  blood,  tankage,  meat  scraps, 
and  bone  meal,  usually  contain  less  than  4  per  cent,  unless 
they  have  been  adulterated,  as  is  sometimes  the  case. 


Table  5.  —  Percentages  of  Crude  Fiber  in  the  Different 
Classes  of  Feedingstuffs  ^ 


Milk    and    milk-prod- 
ucts         none 

Roots 1  to    2 

]^ackinghoiise  by-prod- 
ucts        0  to    4 

('ereal  grains     .     .     .  1  to  11 

Leguminous   pastures  4  to    8 

Ijeguminous  seeds       .  4  to    8 

Silage 6  to  10 


Oil  by-products 
Cereal  by-products 
Grass  pastures 
Oil-bearing  seeds    . 
Stovers  and  fodders 
Leguminous  hays 
Grass  hays    . 
Straws      .... 


6  to2G 
2  to  22 
4  to  12 

7  to  30 
15  to  29 
20  to  29 
2r>  to  30 
30  to  4r> 


FAT   OR    ETHER    EXTRACT 

The  fats  are  distributed  widely  in  both  plant  and  animal 
life.  They  occur  in  nearly  all  plants,  h\ii  in  smaller  amounts 
than  the  carbohydrates.  They  are  found  most  abundantly 
in  the  seeds.  Some  plants,  such  as  flax,  cotton,  the  peanut, 
and  the  soybean,  store  their  reserve  food  material  in  the 
seeds  largely  as  fat,  rather  than  as  carbohydrates.  In  the 
animal,  fats  occur  in  almost  every  organ  and  cell.  They 
are  especially  abundant  in  the  fatty  tissues  of  the  abdominal 
cavity,  in  the  subcutaneous  tissues,  and  in  the  bone  marrow. 
The  animal  body  stores  its  reserve  food  mainly  in  the  form 
of  fat. 

Chemically,  fats  are  composed  of  the  elements  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  Compared  with  crude  protein  and 
carbohydrates,  fats  are  considerably  richer  in  carbon  and 
hydrogen  and  poorer  in  oxygen.     The  average  percentages 

^  These  vahies  represent  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  average  content 
of  crude  fiber  of  the  common  feedingstuffs  included  under  each  class. 


THE   CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS      19 

of  these  elements  found  in  the  most  a]:)midant  fats  as  com- 
pared mth  the  percentages  found  in  glucose,  a  carbohydrate, 
and  with  the  average  percentages  found  in  the  simple  pro- 
teins, are  as  follows : 


Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Fats 

76.5 
40.0 
52.0 

12.0 

6.7 
7.0 

11.5 

Glucose      

Proteins . 

53.3 
22.0 

On  combustion,  therefore,  the  fats  are  capable  of  Hberating 
more  energy  than  the  carbohydrates  and  proteins.  Conse- 
quently fats  are  of  particular  importance  as  a  means  of 
storing  reserve  food.  About  two  and  one-quarter  times  as 
much  energy  can  be  stored  in  a  given  amount  of  fat  as  in 
the  same  amount  of  carbohydrates. 

Fats  are  compounds  or  salts  formed  by  the  combination 
of  fatty  acids  and  glycerin.  Thus  the  fat,  palmitin,  is  formed 
by  the  combination  of  glycerin  and  palmitic  acid  according 
to  the  follo^ving  formula : 

r  OH     r  HO.CO.C15H31  r  O.CO.C15H31 

CaHs^  0H+  j  HO.CO.Ci5H3i=C3H5J  O.CO.C15H31+ 3H2O 
i  OH      [  HO.CO.C15H31  [  O.CO.C15H31 

Glycerin 


Palmitic  acid 


Palmiti 


A  fat  which  is  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures  is  known  as 
an  oil.  The  most  important  animal  fats  are  stearin  and 
valmiiin,  which  predominate  in  the  more  solid  fats,  as 
mutton  and  beef  tallow;  and  olei?i,  which  predominates  in 
the  more  hquid  fats,  as  cod  hver  oil.  These  fats  are  also 
included  in  many  vegetable  fats.     A  great  variety  of  other 


20  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 

fats  are  found  in  plants  and  animals.  Among  these  the 
so-called  drying  and  semi-drying  oils  are  of  interest,  inas- 
much as  they  have  the  power  to  dry  and  harden  upon  ex- 
posure to  air,  hght,  and  moisture.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  drying  oils,  of  which  Unseed  oil  is  the  most  important 
example.  Consequently,  the  drying  oils  are  used  in  paint- 
ing. Cottonseed  oil  and  corn  oil  are  examples  of  semi- 
drjdng  oils. 

When  a  fat  is  heated  ^vith  an  alkah,  such  as  caustic  soda, 
the  fat  is  broken  up,  setting  the  glycerin  free,  and  the  fatty 
acid  is  united  with  the  metal  of  the  alkah  to  form  a  soap. 
This  process  is  called  saponification.  Advantage  is  taken 
of  this  property  of  fats  in  the  manufacture  of  common  soap 
on  the  farm,  the  alkah  in  the  lye  acting  upon  the  fat  of 
the  animal  refuse  with  the  formation  of  soap.  Potassium 
soaps  are  soft,  while  sodium  soaps  are  hard.  By  treating  a 
soap  with  mineral  acid  the  soap  is  decomposed  and  the 
fatty  acid  is  set  free. 

When  exposed  to  the  action  of  moisture,  air,  and  hght, 
fats  gradually  acquire  a  disagreeable  odor,  an  acrid  taste, 
and  become  acid  in  reaction.  They  are  then  said  to  be 
rancid.  When  ground  feedingstuffs  containing  considerable 
fat,  such  as  corn  meal,  soybean  meal,  oil  meal,  etc.,  are 
stored  they  gradually  become  rancid  and  consequently  un- 
palatable to  animals. 

The  waxes,  such  as  lanolin,  or  wool  fat,  beeswax,  and 
sperm  oil,  are  closely  related  to  the  fats.  They  consist  of 
combinations  of  fatty  acids  and  some  of  the  higher 
alcohols. 

The  phosphatides,  also,  are  closely  related  to  the  fats.  In 
addition  to   containing  fatty  acids  and  glycerin,  they  also 


THE   CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS     21 

contain  phosphoric  acid  and  some  nitrogen-containing  com- 
pounds. They  are  found  in  the  protoplasm  of  all  cells. 
They  occur  most  abundantly  in  the  brain,  nerves,  heart, 
and  blood  corpuscles,  in  milk  and  eggs,  and  in  the  seeds  of 
all  the  cereals.  Although  little  is  definitely  known  of  their 
functions,  yet  they  are  among  the  most  important  substances 
in  living  matter,  being  essential  components  of  all  living 
cells. 

Fat  in  Feedingstuffs.  —  The  quantity  of  fat  in  a  feeding- 
stuff  usually  is  determined  by  extracting  a  finely  ground, 
dried,  weighed  sample  of  the  feed  with  ether,  which  dis- 
solves out  the  fat.  The  ether  is  then  evaporated  off  and 
the  residue  of  fat  is  weighed.  The  weight  of  the  fat  divided 
by  the  weight  of  the  sample  and  multiplied  by  100  gives 
the  per  cent  of  fat.  However,  not  only  fats,  but  other  sub- 
stances, such  as  waxes,  chlorophyll,  and  some  of  the  organic 
acids  also,  are  extracted  from  the  feedingstuff  by  the  ether. 
This  is  true  especially  in  the  case  of  roughages,  such  as  hay, 
fodder,  and  silage.  Thus  the  extract  is  often  spoken  of 
as  crude  fat,  or  ether  extract. 

Of  the  feedingstuffs,  the  oily  seeds,  as  flaxseed  and  cotton- 
seed, and  the  waste  animal  products,  as  tankage  and  crack- 
Hngs,  contain  the  most  fat,  —  12  to  35  per  cent.  The  oil 
by-products  contain  a  medium  amount,  —  3  to  13  per  cent. 
Of  the  ordinary  grains,  corn  contains  the  largest  amount, 
—  5.0  per  cent.  Non-leguminous  hays,  straws,  roots,  and 
the  fresh  pasture  grasses  contain  the  smallest  amounts  of 
fat,  —  0.1  to  3  per  cent. 

The  average  percentages  of  fat  or  ether  extract  in  the 
various  classes  of  the  ordinary  feedingstuffs  are  shown  in 
Table  6. 


22  PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 

Table  6.  —  Percextages  of  Fat  in  the  Different  Classes  of 
Feedingstuffs  ^ 

Roots 0.1  to  0.4  Leguminous  hays  .  1.9  to    5.2 

Silage 0.3  to  2.2  Cereal  grains     .     .  1.7  to    5.0 

Leguminous  pastures  0.4  to  1.1  Leguminous    seeds  1,0  to  42.6 

Grass  pastures     .     .  0.3  to  1.3  Cereal  by-products  1.3  to  10.6 

^lilk  and  milk-prod-  Oil  by-products      .  2.7  to  12.6 

ucts 0.1  to  3.7  Packinghouse    b\'- 

Stovers  and  fodders  .  1.0  to  5.0  products         .     .  0.3  to  13.7 

Straws 1.2  to  2.3  Oil-bearing  seeds   .  20.0  to  34.0 

Grass  hays      .     .     .  1.3  to  3.0 


ACCESSORY    SUBSTANCES    IX    THE    RATION 

Vitamines.  —  In  their  di.scussion  of  the  question  of  the 
vitamines  in  the  diet,  Osborne  and  Mendel  ^  have  made 
the  following  statement :  ''  The  researches  which  have  been 
devoted  in  recent  years  to  certain  diseases,  notably  beri 
beri,  have  made  it  more  than  probable  that  there  are  condi- 
tions of  nutrition  during  which  certain  essential,  but,  as 
yet  unkno^\^l,  substances  must  be  suppHed  in  the  diet  if 
nutritive  disaster  is  to  be  avoided.  These  substances 
apparently  do  not  belong  to  the  category  of  the  ordinary 
nutrients,  and  do  not  fulfill  their  physiological  mission 
because  of  the  energy-  which  they  supply.  Funk  has  pro- 
posed the  name  \'itamine  for  the  type  of  substance  thus 
represented."  But  Uttle  is  definitely  kno^^Tl  of  the  chemical 
composition  and  chemical  properties  of  the  so-called  \dta- 
mines.  However,  it  is  known  that  certain  substances,  in 
addition  to  proteins,  carbohydrates,  fats,  and  mineral  matter, 
are  essential  to  proper  nutrition.  The  disease  beri  beri  in 
man  is  said  to  })e  caused  by  a  diet  of  ])olished  rice  which 

1  These  values  represent  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  average  fat  con- 
tent of  the  common  feedingstuffs  included  under  each  class. 

2  Jour,  of  Biol.  Chem.  XVI.  1913-1914,  p.  423. 


is  deficient  in  certain  of  these  unknown  chemical  compounds, 
the  vitamines.  Also  beri  beri  may  be  caused  by  a  diet  of 
bread  and  macaroni  from  highly  milled  wheat  flour.  How- 
ever, unpolished  rice,  or  polished  rice  and  rice  bran,  or 
whole  wheat  flour  do  not  produce  beri  beri,  incUcating  that 
the  so-called  vitamines  are  present  in  the  outside  coats  of 
rice  and  wheat. 

McCoUum  and  Davis  ^  fed  mixtures  of  casein  (a  complete 
protein),  carbohydrates,  and  mineral  matter  to  young  rats. 
Normal  growth  ensued  for  3  to  4  months  })ut  then  ceased. 
The  addition  to  the  ration  of  butter  fat,  egg-yolk  fat,  kidney 
fat  (fat  from  the  kidney  itself,  not  the  fat  surrounding  the 
kidney),  fat  from  corn,  or  fat  from  wheat  germ  caused 
normal  growth.  However,  the  addition  of  lard,  ohve  oil, 
cottonseed  oil,  or  tallow  did  not  add  to  the  value  of  the 
basal  ration.  Later  Osborne  and  Mendel  ^  found  that  cod 
liver  oil  and  the  Ughter  oils  of  beef  fat,  added  to  the  basal 
ration,  produce  normal  growth,  but  they  are  not  as  efficient 
for  this  purpose  as  is  butter  fat,  as  larger  amounts  are  re- 
quired for  normal  growth. 

Little  or  nothing  is  definitely  known  at  this  time  as  to  the 
chemical  composition,  properties,  and  occurrence  of  these 
substances,  or  vitamines.  However,  they  apparently  play 
a  very  important  role  in  nutrition. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  at  the  present  time  whether  further 
knowledge  of  the  vitamines  will  have  any  practical  value  in 
the  feeding  of  farm  animals.  It  is  quite  probable  that  it 
may,  particularly  in  the  case  of  hogs,  where  there  ordinarily 

»  Jour,  of  Biol.  Chem.  XV,  1913,  p.  167;   XIX,  1914,  pp.  245  and  373; 
XX,  1915,  p.  641;  XXI,  1915,  p.  179;  XXIII.  1915.  pp.  ISl  and  231. 
2  Jour,  of  Biol.  Chem.  XVII,  1914,  p.  401. 


24  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

is  not  much  variety  in  the  ration.  Such  knowledge  may 
help  to  explain  why  some  feeds,  such  as  wheat  bran,  have 
a  nutritive  value  much  higher  than  their  gross  chemical 
composition  and  energy  values  indicate.  A  study  of  the 
vitamines  is  certainly  of  practical  importance  in  human 
nutrition  and  may  shed  further  light  upon  the  causes  and 
remedies  of  such  nutritional  diseases  as  beri  beri,  pellagra, 
and  scurvy. 


nOPERTY  UMARY 
N.  C.  State  Co/faft 


CHAPTER  II 

THE    CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION    OF   FARM 
ANIMALS 

The  animal  body  is  the  product  of  the  feed  which  the 
animal  consumes.  Thus,  having  discussed  briefly  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  compounds  which  are  found  in  feedingstuffs, 
it  is  of  importance  to  consider  the  composition  of  the  animal 
body  which  is  formed  from  them. 

Although  the  chemical  analysis  of  an  entire  animal  is  very 
much  more  difficult  than  the  analysis  of  a  feedingstuff,  still 
considerable  work  has  been  done  upon  cattle,  sheep,  and 
hogs  of  different  ages  and  degrees  of  fatness.  Lawes  and 
Gilbert,  of  the  Rothamsted  (England)  Experiment  Station,^ 
carried  on  the  first  and  most  elaborate  investigations  upon 
the  chemical  composition  of  farm  animals.  They  analyzed  a 
fat  calf,  a  half-fat  steer,  a  fat  steer,  a  fat  lamb,  a  thin  sheep, 
a  half-fat  sheep,  an  extra  fat  sheep,  a  thin  hog,  and  a  fat 
hog.  Jordan,  at  the  Maine  Experiment  Station,^  analyzed 
two  thin  and  two  fat  steers.  Trowbridge,  at  the  Missouri 
Experiment  Station,^  analyzed  six  thin  steers.  Emmett  and 
Grindley,  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,'*  analyzed  two 
thin  pigs  and  five  fat  hogs.  Haecker,^  at  the  Minnesota 
Station,  analyzed  two  new-born  calves  and  forty-five  steers 

1  Philosophical  Transactions  of  Royal  Society  of  London,  1859. 

2  Annual  Report,  1895. 

3  Proceedings  of  the  American  Society  for  Animal  Nutrition,  1910. 
^  Unpublished  data. 

6  Proceedings  of  the  American  Society  for  Animal  Production,  1914, 
and  unpublished  data. 

25 


26 


PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 


in  good  condition,  ranging  in  weight  from  100  to  1500 
pounds.  Table  7  compiled  from  these  results  shows  the 
average  composition  of  the  common  meat-producing  animals 
under  varying  conditions  of  fatness. 

Table  7. —  Average  Composition  of  Meat-producing  Animals^ 


No. 

Animal 

Condition 

An- 
alyzed 

Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  rent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Calf      .     .      at  birth      .     .     . 

2 

72.1 

19.5 

4.8 

3.9 

Calf 

I   fat    .      .      . 

1 

63.0 

15.2 

14.8 

7.0 

Calf      . 

good,     100  1b 

5 

71.8 

19.9 

4.0 

43 

Calf 

good,    200  lb 

4 

69.5 

19.6 

6.3 

4.6 

Calf 

good,    3()0  1b 

3 

66.3 

19.4 

9.8 

4.5 

Calf      . 

good,    400  lb 

5 

65.8 

19.3 

10.6 

44 

Calf 

good,    500  1b 

5 

62.9 

19.2 

13.7 

4  2 

Steer 

good,    600  lb 

3 

62.0 

19.2 

14.0 

4.6 

Steer 

good,    700  1b 

6 

60.7 

18.8 

15.9 

4.5 

Steer 

good,    800  1b 

4 

57.9 

18.7 

19.2 

4.2 

Steer 

good,    900  lb 

3 

54.1 

17.7 

24.1 

4.2 

Steer 

good,  1000  lb 

2 

53.0 

17.6 

25.5 

3.8 

Steer 

good,  1100  lb 

1 

48.0 

16.2 

31.9 

3.9 

Steer 

good,  1200  lb 

2 

48.6 

16.6 

31.1 

37 

Steer 

good,  1400  lb 

1 

47.8 

16.1 

32.6 

35 

Steer 

good,  1500  lb 

1 

43.5 

15.7 

37.7 

3.2 

Steer 

very  thin  . 

1 

69.2 

21.0 

2.2 

7.0 

Steer 

thin 

4 

60.1 

19.3 

14.4 

5  4 

Steer 

half-fat      . 

4 

56.4 

17.6 

19.1 

4.8 

Steer 

fat    .     .     . 

3 

50.7 

15.9 

26.6 

47 

Lamb 

1  fat    .     .     . 

1 

47.8 

12.3 

28.5 

2.9 

Sheep 

thin .     .     . 

1 

57.3 

14.8 

18.7 

32 

Sheep 

half-fat      . 

1 

50.2 

14.0 

23.5 

3  2 

Sheep 

.      fat    .     .     . 

1 

43.2 

12.2 

35.6 

2.8 

Sheep 

very  fat     . 

1 

35.2 

10.9 

45.8 

2.9 

Pig^ 

4  mos.,  thin 

2 

61.7 

15.5 

19.0 

3.2 

Hog 

thin  . 

3 

59.5 

14.9 

20.5 

3.0 

Hog 

.      fat    .     .     . 

1 

() 

45.0 

13.8 

38.0 

3.5 

1  Not  including  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestines. 

2  Included  also  in  the  next  average. 


THE   CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION   OF  FARM  ANIMALS     2? 

Water.  —  As  shown  by  the  table,  water  is  an  essential 
and  abundant  constituent  of  the  animal  body,  varying  in 
amount  from  35  per  cent  in  case  of  a  very  fat  sheep  to  72 
per  cent  in  case  of  the  new-born  calves.  The  blood,  which 
forms  from  3  to  10  per  cent  of  the  body  weight,  is  80  per  cent 
water.  The  tissues,  excluding  the  fatty  tissues  and  the 
bones,  contain  from  50  to  85  per  cent  water,  while  the 
skeleton  contains  from  30  to  60  per  cent  water.  In  general, 
somewhat  more  than  half  of  the  weight  of  our  farm  animals 
consists  of  water.  The  percentage  of  water  in  the  bodies 
of  animals  varies  with  their  species,  condition,  and  age.  A 
study  of  the  data  presented  in  Table  7  shows  that,  in  general, 
cattle  contain  more  water  than  sheep  and  hogs.  It  shows 
further  that  fat  animals  contain  considerably  less  water 
than  thin  animals  of  the  same  age  and  species.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  fatter  the  animal  the  smaller  is  the 
percentage  of  water  which  it  contains.  This  explains  in 
large  part  why  pork  and  mutton  usually  contain  less  water 
than  beef.  The  calves,  the  lamb,  and  the  four-month-old 
pigs  show  a  considerably  higher  water  content  than  more 
mature  animals  of  the  same  species.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  younger  the  animal,  the  more  water  it  contains. 
This  is  shown  very  well  by  Figure  1,  made  by  Professor 
Haecker  from  his  results  upon  the  composition  of  steers  of 
different  ages.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that 
veal  and  lamb  contain  more  water  than  beef  and  mutton, 
respectively. 

Mineral  Matter  or  Ash.  —  The  farm  animals  usually 
contain  3  to  5  per  cent  of  mineral  matter.  By  far  the  largest 
amount  of  mineral  matter  in  the  animal  body  is  found  in 
the  bones,  while  smaller  amounts  occur  in  the  protein  tissues 


28     PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

and  body  fluids.  Calcium  is  the  most  abundant  constituent 
of  the  mineral  matter  of  the  body  forming  more  than  half 
of  it.  It  is  found  especially  in  the  bones  in  the  form  of 
phosphates.  Phosphorus  is  found  also  in  the  active  tissues, 
in  the  body  fluids,  and  in  some  of  the  proteins  and  other 
complex  compounds.  Potassium  is  found  especially  in  the 
lean  tissues,  as  the  muscles,  organs,  blood  corpuscles,  etc. 
Magnesium  is  quite  generally  distributed  throughout  the 
body.  Sodium,  in  the  form  of  sodium  chloride,  is  found 
especialh^  in  the  body  fluids.  Sulphur  occurs  in  many  of  the 
proteins,  especially  in  wool,  hair,  hoof,  and  horn.  Inasmuch 
as  the  fatty  tissue  contains  only  a  small  amount  of  mineral 
matter,  the  percentage  of  mineral  matter  in  the  animal  body 
varies  inversel}^  with  the  degree  of  fatness,  i.e.  fat  animals 
contain  a  lower  per  cent  of  mineral  matter  than  lean  ones, 
and  vice  versa.  Thus  the  percentages  of  mineral  matter  are 
less  in  hogs  and  sheep  than  in  cattle,  which  ordinarily  con- 
tain less  fat. 

Fat.  —  Under  normal  conditions  fat  occurs  in  nearly 
every  organ ^nd  "cell  of  the  animal  bod\:.  It  is  especially 
abundant  in  the  connective  tissues  of^f^  nbrlnrpinnl  c-'^vi^v, 
in  the  subcutaneous  tissues,  and  in  the  bone  marrow.  Large 
quantities  of  tat  maj^  Be~stored  byThe  ammal  as  reserve  food 
material.  In  fairly  mature  animals  in  good^condition^  fat 
next  to  water  is  ordinarily  the  most  abundant  substance  of, 
the  animal  bodvv.  Fat  hogs  usually  contain  about  38  per 
cent,  fat  sheep  about  36  to  46  per  cent,  and  fat  steers  nbont 
24  to  38  per  cent  fat.  Thin  hogs  and  sheep  contain  about 
20  per  cent,  and  thin  cattle  about  14  per  cent  fat.  The  fat 
calf  and  the  fat  lamb  contain  less  fat  than  more  mature 
animals  of  the  same  species'  in  similar   condition.     Other 


THE   CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION   OF   FARM  ANIMALS     29 


things  being  equal,  mature  animals  usually  contain  a  larger 
per  cent  of  fat  than  immature  ones.  In  case  of  cattle  this 
is  clearly  shown  by  Figure  1. 

COMPOSITION  OF    STEERS 

FROM  100  TO  1200  POUNDS 
-  BODY  LESS  WASTE  BASIS 


100    200 


300 


500   600 


700 


800    900   1000   tlOO   1200 


^ 


FAT 


PROTEIN 


ASH 


WATER 


Fig,  1.  —  Composition  of  steers  from  100  to  1200  pouncU 
Experiment  Station.) 


(Minnesota 


Protein.  —  As   previously   stated,    proteinsoccur__as__an 
essential  part  of  every  animal  cell, 'and  iirih£_-£iiids_sur.r. 


roimding_the_jC£lL  They  form  the  chief  part  of  the  dry 
substance  of  the  blood,  muscles,  nerves,  glands,  skin,  hair, 
horns,  and  hoofs  of  the  animal.  In  amount^  protein  usually: 
rRnj^tt  npvf  fn  fgf^  ^Ifhnngh  i  n  j^^ry Jean_Qrhi  young  animals 


30  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

it  may  rank  next  to  water.  Fat  cattle  contain  about  16  per 
c^t^  fat  sheep  abouFT^ per  cent"  and  fat  hogs  about  14 
^er  cent  of  protein.  Thin  cat_tle  contain  approximately  20 
per  centj^thin  sheep  about  15  per  cent,  and  thin  hogs  about 
15  per  cent  of  protein.  The  fat  calf  and  fat  lamb  contain 
about  20  per  cent  and  12  per  cent  of  protein,  respectively. 
In  generaj^_the_ fatter  the  animal,  the  lower  is  the  per  cent 
of  protein.  Thus  cattle  usually  contain  more  protein  than 
sheep  and  hogs.  It  may  be  noted  also  that  the  protein 
content  of  the  animal  varies  difectly  with  the  water  and  ash 
content  because  considerable  quantities  of  these  two  classes 
of  compounds  are  always  found  associated  with  the  proteins. 
As  shown  by  Figure  1 ,  the  percentage  of  protein  in  the  body 
decreases  slightly  mth  increasing  maturity. 

Carbohydrates.  —  The  animal  body  contains  a  very  small 
per  cent  of  carbohydrates  in  the  form  of  glycogen  or  "  animal 
starch,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  It  is  stored  up  especially 
in  the  liver  which  ordinarily  contains  from  1  to  4  per  cent 
and  in  smaller  amounts  in  the  muscles.  There  is  also  a  small 
amount  of  glucose  in  the  blood  and  muscles.  In  the  ordinary 
analysis  of  the  animal  body,  the  amount  of  carbohydrates  is 
not  determined. 

Composition  of  Increase  in  Body  Weight.  — Jlie^feeding 
of  meat-producing  animals  usuallv  has  as  its  primary  ob]^ 
the  increng^  nffJTpjnHyw^ight  of  thp  flnimnl  The  increase 
in  body  weight  also  is  the  primary  object  of  feeding  all 
growing  animals.  Gain  in  body  weight  is  due  ordinarily 
to  one  or  both  of  two  factors,  growth  and  fattening. 

Growth  consists  of  an_incr£as£_jQf  the  striicjiiral  com- 

^■~ - — ■ — - — ~ 

ponents  of  the  body,  chiefly  by  cell  multiplication,  resultmg 
in^^n  liTaizc  and  weight.     Inasmuch  as  the  dry  substance 


THE   CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF  FARM  ANIMALS     31 

of  the  structural  components  consists  principally  of  protein 
material,  growth  may  be  defined  as  an  increase  in  the  pro- 
tein tissue  of  the  body.  For  the  purposes  of  this  book  any 
tissue,  the  dry  substance  of  which  is  composed  largely  of 
proteins,  may  be  considered  as  protein  tissue.  It  should  be 
noted  that  any  increase  in  protein  is  always  accompanied 
by  a  large  amount  of  water  and  a  small  amount  of  mineral 
matter.  Any  considerable  fat  production  accompanying 
the  increase  in  protein  tissue  niayT)e  regarded  as  incidental, 
its  amount  depending  upon  the  amount  and  nature  of  the 
feed. 

Fattening  consists  in  the  deposition  of  fat  in  the  cells 
already  present  in  the  body,  most  largely  in  the  cells  of  the 
iQnseponnective  tissue.  During  the  process  the  cytoplasm  and 
nucleus  are  pressed  to  one  side  and  the  cell  wall  may  be 
greatly  distended.  The^mainobject  ot  tattemngls  not  the 
storage^f  a  large  amount  of  fat  for  the  nutritive  value  which 
the  fat  contains,  but  to  improve  the  flavor,  tenderness,  and 
quality  of  the  lean  meat  by  the  deposition_ofJat  between  the 
mnsnnlar  jfih^rs-  This  mixture  of  fat  and  lean  is  much  de- 
sired by  the  butcher  and  consumer.  It  is  known  as 
''  marbling."  Figure  2  shows  the  desired  marbling  in  a 
porterhouse  steak  from  a  prime  steer  carcass. 

just_as__the  normal  production  of  protein  tissue  during 
growth  is  accompanied  by  the  production  of  more  or  less 
fatE^y  tissue7(^.g-  tissue  the  dry  substance  of  which  is  com- 
posed largely  of  fat)  so  also  a  fattening  animal,  unless  quite 
mature,  continues  to  grow~while  l3eihg  fattenedr  Thus^the 
tm)  processes  of  growth  and  fattemng  shaHejnto  each  other 
and  no  sharp  distinction  can  be  made  between  them,  as  m 
many  cases  both  processes  are  taking  place  at  the  same  time. 


32 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


The  chemical  composition  of  the  increase  depends  hirgely 
upon  the  proportion  of  growth  to  fattening,  \yhpn  \hc^ 
increase  is  due  principally  to  grovvjji,  it  consiats_iargely  of 
water  and  protein,  together  with  a  small  amoun^Lo^  minprnl 
natter,  \yhen  the  increase  is  due  principally  tojattening^ 
it  consists  largely  offat  with  only  a  small  amount  qf_\\^ater. 


Fig.  2. 


Porterhouse  steak  from  a  prime  steer.     Note  the  "marbliug." 
(Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 


Thus  an  increase  in_ili£  weight  of  a  calL-imles^cd  quite 
lihrrnll}^^  is  due  largely  tQ-ja^-storage  of  protein_andjvvater 
together  with  a  relatiyely  small  amount  of  fat.  jOn  ,  the, 
other  hand,  the  gain  in  weight  of  a  two-year-old  steer  is 
due  largely  to  a  storage^^liaJL  with  only  a  relatiyely  small 
^.mount  of  water  and  protein.  This  is  brought  out  quite 
clearly  by  the  results  of  Waters,  Mumford,  and  Trowbridge 
at  the  Missouri  Station.^     These  inyestigators  found  that  the 

1  Henry  and  Morrison,  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  p.  84. 


chemical  compositions  of  the  first  500  pounds  of  gain  and  the 
second  500  pounds  of  gain  by  fattening  steers  were  as  follows  : 


r 

First  500 

Second  500 

Pounds  op  Gain 

Pounds  of  Gain 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Water 

37.G 

17.8 

Mineral  matter      .... 

2.0 

1.5 

F'at- 

48.G 

75.6 

Protein 

11.9 

5.2 

CHAPTER  III 
THE    DIGESTION    OF    THE    NUTRIENTS 

In  order  that  the  nutrients  of  the  feedingstuffs  may  be 
ma(h^  available  for  the  nutrition  of  the  animal  body,  they 
first  must  undergo  digestion.  Digestion  is  the  process  by 
which  the  digestive  agents  change  into  forms  which  are 
soluble,  diffusible,  and  available  to  the  tissues  such  por- 
tions of  the  feed  as  are  capable  of  such  changes  in  the  diges- 
tive tract.  However,  portions  of  the  feed  which  are  really 
capable  of  digestion  often  are  not  digested.  Their  escape 
may  be  merely  a  matter  of  chance. 

The  Digestive  System.  —  The  digestive  system  consists 
of  the  organs  concerned  in  the  reception  and  digestion  of 
the  feed,  in  the  passage  of  the  feed  through  the  animal  body, 
and  in  the  excretion  of  the  unabsorbed  residue.  For  con- 
venience in  study,  the  digestive  system  may  be  divided  into 
the  alimentary  canal  and  the  accessory  organs  of  digestion. 
The  alimentary  canal,  or  aUmentary  tract  as  it  is  often  called, 
is  the  passage  which  begins  with  the  mouth,  includes  the 
esophagus,  stomach,  small  intestine,  large  intestine,  and  ends 
with  the  anus.  These  divisions  are  shown  schematically  in 
Figure  3. 

The  esophagus  or  gullet  is  the  tube-like  passage  which 
leads  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach.  In  the  horse  and 
hog  the  stomach  consists  of  a  single  pear-shaped  sac  which 
has  a  capacity  in  the  horse  of  3  to  4  gallons  and  in  the  hog  of 

34 


THE   DIGESTION   OF    THE   NUTRIENTS 


35 


hjv' — ^  \} 


IJ  to  2  gallons.     The  stomach  of  a  horse  is  shown  in  Figure 

4.     In  the  ruminants  or  cud-chewing  animals,  as  the  cow 

and   sheep,   the    stomach   is    modified 

considerably   and    much    enlarged    in 

order   to  handle   the  large  amount  of 

roughage  which  these  animals  ordinarily 

consume.     The  stomach  of  ruminants 

consists  of  four  divisions,  as  follows : 

(1)   the   rumen    or    paunch;      (2)   the 

reticulum    or    honey    comb ;     (3)    the 

omasum    or    manyphes;     and    (4)  the 

ahomasum  or  true  stomach.     In  cattle 

of  medium  size  the  stomach  holds  30 

to  40  gallons,  in  large  animals,  40  to  60, 

cmd  in   small,   25   to   35.      In  mature 

cattle  the  rumen  constitutes  about  80 

per  cent,  the  reticulum  5  per  cent,  the 

omasum   7   or   8    per   cent,    and   the   .J^r^f "  °'^(t4;! 

abomasum  8  or  7  per  cent  of  the  total   Veterinary    Physioi- 

.,  r.     ,,  J.'  4.  u         T       o^y-)  P/i- pharynx; 

capacity  oi  the  entire  stomach.  In  T-tongue;  S.G.- 
sheep  the  total  capacity  of  the  stomach    salivary    glands;     Oe  - 

^  r-  ^  esophagus ;     c  -  cardiac 

is  4  to  5  gallons.    The  rumen  or  paunch    region  of  stomach ;   Py  - 

,  1  •    1       c        i  1         pyloric   region   of   stom- 

IS  a  very  large  sac  used  mainly  for  the  ^ch;  Li  -  liver ;  p  -  pan- 
temporary  storage  of  the  partially  mas-   ^^^^^  =  D- duodenum ;  / 

-  jejunum  ;     I  -  ileum  ; 

ticated  feed.  It  connects  directly  with  v  -  vermiform  ap- 
the  reticulum  and  omasum,  which  are  ^.^^^^^;.  ^a-uu^"^'^' 
much  smaller  sacs.     The  reticulum  and 

omasum  besides  connecting  with  the  rumen  and  each  other, 
also  connect  directly  with  the  esophagus.  The  omasum 
has  a  great  number  of  large,  fleshy  projections  or  leaves, 
resembUng  huge  wrinkles  upon  the  inside,  from  which  it 


36  PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

derives  the  common  name,  manyplies.  The  omasum  con- 
nects directly  with  the  abomasum  or  true  stomach,  whicli, 
although  much  smaller  than  the  rumen,  is  considerably 
larger  than  the  reticulum.  The  omasum  and  abomasum  are 
about  the  same  size.     (See  Figure  8.) 

The  small  intestine  is  a  long,  folded,  convoluted  tube  into 

which   the   stomach   empties.     The   capacity   of   the   small 

Saccu:^         •  '       :,nhj)  intestine  of  the 

different     farm 
animals    is  ap- 
""^  proximately    as 

^        follows  :cow,  17 
,u;allons ;    horse, 
r     12      gallons  ; 
Biicduct^  f^   V     .     lil- •  sheep,    21    gal- 

lons;   and  hog. 


/ 


A rea  of  allnchmcnl  to  dia- 
phragm {non-peritoneal) 


2 J  gallons.  In 
the  cow,  the 
small    intestine 

Fig.  4.  —  Stomach  of  the  horse.     (Sisson,  Veterinary  isabout  130  feet 
Anatomy.)  i  •         x  u 

long;  in  the 
horse,  al^out  70  feet  long ;  in  the  sheep,  about  80  feet  long ; 
and  in  the  hog,  about  60  feet  long. 

The  large  intestine  joins  the  lower  end  of  the  small  intes- 
tine. The  upper  end  of  the  large  intestine  joining  it  to 
the  lower  end  of  the  small  intestine  is  called  the  ccccuni. 
It  is  an  elongated  ])ag,  the  openings  into  and  out  of  which  are 
both  found  at  tlu^  upper  part  close  together.  The  rela- 
tion of  the  caecum  to  the  small  intestine  is  shown  in 
Figure  5.  The  caecum  of  the  horse  is  much  enlarged.  It 
is  3  to  4  feet    in    length    and    has  a    capacity  of    7    to  8 


THE   DIGESTION   OF    THE  NUTRIENTS  37 

gallons.  This  provision  enables  the  horse  to  handle  con- 
siderable amounts  of  roughages.  The  large  intestine  is 
larger  in  diameter  and  is  considerably  shorter  than  the  small 
intestine.  It  also  contains  many  folds  and  convolutions, 
especially  at  its  upper  end.  It  ends  in  the  anus.  In  the 
horse  the  upper  end,  just  adjacent  to  the  small  intestine,  is 
much  enlarged  to  enable  the  animal  to  handle  roughage. 
0^ving  to  this  provision,  the 
large  intestine  of  the  horse 
has  the  greatest  capacity  of 
that  of  any  of  the  farm  ani- 
mals, —  about  30  to  35  gal- 
lons. The  large  intestine  of 
the  cow  has  a  capacity  of 
about  8  to  10  gallons,  and  that 
of  the  sheep  about  IJ  gallons. 
The  large  intestine  of  the  hog     ^^-  -  f— ">  ^f  ^^/^^h— 

is   relatively    large,    as    this  is      Physiology-.)     l,  The  first  colon  of 
,  -  .   .         .  ^    ,  „  the  large  intestine ;    2,  the  ileum  of 

the  only  provision  it    has  for      the  small  intestine. 

handhng  roughage.     It  has  a 

capacity  of  about  2f  gallons,  or  nearly  twice  that  of  the 
sheep.  The  length  of  the  large  intestine  of  the  different 
farm  animals  is  approximately  as  follows  :  horse,  25  feet ; 
cow,  36  feet ;   sheep,  21  feet ;   and  hog,  15  feet. 

The  accessory  organs  of  digestion  are  the  teeth,  tongue, 
salivary  glands,  liver,  and  pancreas.  (See  Figure  3.)  The 
teeth  are  used  in  the  mastication  or  chewing  of  the  feed, 
while  the  tongue  assists  in  conveying  it  into  the  mouth  and 
in  swallo^ving  it  after  mastication.  The  sahvary  glands 
are  small  glands  located  under  the  ears,  under  the  lower  jaw, 
and  between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw.     They  produce 


38 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


the  saliva  and,  l:)y  means  of  ducts,  empty  it  into  the  mouth. 
The  saUvary  glands  of  the  cow  are  shown  in  Figure  6. 

The  Uver,  located  just  back  of  the  stomach,  is  the  largest 
gland  in  the  body.  It  produces  the  bile  which  it  stores  in 
the  gall  bladder  and,  when  needed,  empties  it  into  the  upper 
part  of  the  small  intestine.     It  is  of  interest  to  note  that 

the  Uver  of  the 
horse  contains  no 
gall  bladder,  the 
bile  being  stored 
in  the  ducts  them- 
selves. 

The  pancreas, 
commonly  called 
the  sweet-bread, 
is  a  small  gland 
which  Hes  along 
the  upper  part  of 
the  small  intes- 
tine. It  secretes 
the  pancreatic 
juice  into  the 
small  intestine. 
The  relationship  of  the  different  parts  of  the  digestive 
system,  in  case  of  the  horse,  is  shown  in  Figure  7. 

Enzymes.  —  Digestion  is  accomplished  for  the  most  part 
by  means  of  substances  known  as  enzymes,  or  ferments, 
which  are  formed  l)y  the  salivary  glands,  by  glands  in  the 
walls  of  the  stomach,  by  the  pancreas,  and  ])y  glands  in 
the  walls  of  the  small  intestine.  An  enzyme  may  be  defined 
as  a  substance  secreted  by  cells^  which  has  power,  under 


c 

\^ 

^ 

^t 

1 

iSjI^ew. 

^■^^'^i^^f'^sr  ,1 

T-**^=^!^ 

^^ 

Fig.  6.  —  Head  of  cow,  showing  some  of  the 
salivary  glands,  a,  h,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h.  (Sisson, 
Veterinary  Anatomy.) 


THE   DIGESTION   OF   THE   NUTRIENTS 


39 


certain  conditions,  of  bringing  about  a  chemical  reaction 
without  itself  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  final 
products  of  the  reaction.  In  other  words,  an  enzyme  is  a 
substance  which,  when  added  to  certain  inactive  substances, 
causes  a  chemical  change  to  take  place  w^ith  the  formation 


AfotUA 

Dmphmffm 
Spleen,. 

DlUKto. 

/i  >  er,  iifiprreurtyfiiiily 

/Aijye  ciilon 

Ccr, 

SrnaiJ  iftt^U*/ir . 

FlofUing  coioii. . 

Anius. 

//•/?  kiettury  find  Us  u/r^rr 

Bladiitr 

HrrtJcra . 


Pig.  7.  —  Digestive  tract  of  the  horse.     (U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


of  new  products.  The  enzyme  itself  remains  unchanged, 
and  may  be  recovered  entirely  at  the  end  of  the  reaction  and 
used  over  and  over  again  to  produce  similar  reactions.  It 
acts  as  a  catalytic  agent.  Thus  a  dilute  solution  of  starch 
may  be  allowed  to  stand  at  room  temperature  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time  and  no  changes  will  take  place. 
However,  if  a  few  drops  of  saliva,  which  .;ontains  the  enzyme 
salivary  amylase  or  ''  ptyalin,"  are   added,  all  the  starch 


40  PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

disappears  within  a  few  minutes  and  a  sugar  is  formed  in 
its  place.  If  more  starch  then  is  added,  it  also  is  changed  to 
sugar  and  the  process  may  be  repeated  a  great  many  times 
without  using  up  or  destroying  the  enzj^me  which  brings 
about  the  change. 

Enzymes  are  found  in  all  plants  and  animals,  and  it  is 
probable  that  not  only  digestion  but  many  of  the  phenomena 
of  life  are  brought  about  primarily  by  the  presence  of  these 
substances.  The  ultimate  purpose  of  the  enzymes  found 
in  the  digestive  juices  is  to  transform  complex  insoluble 
substances,  as  proteins,  fats,  and  starch,  into  simple,  solul)le, 
transfusible  substances  which  may  be  taken  up  by  the 
blood. 

Digestion  in  the  Mouth.  —  The  first  step  in  the  digestion 
of  feedingstuffs  is  to  tear  and  break  them  apart,  and  to  re- 
duce them  to  a  fine  condition.  This  is  accomphshed  in 
the  mouth  by  the  process  of  mastication.  The  feeding- 
stuffs  are  not  only  broken  up,  but  they  are  also  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  saliva,  which  is  formed  in  large  quantities 
by  the  salivary  glands.  The  horse  may  secrete  as  much  as 
84  pounds,  and  the  cow  112  pounds  of  saliva  per  day,  the 
amount  depending  largely  upon  the  dryness  of  the  feeds. 
The  main  function  of  the  saliva  is  to  assist  in  mastication 
and  swallowing,  to  stimulate  the  nerves  of  taste,  and,  in 
ruminants,  to  assist  in  rumination  {i.e.  chewing  the  cud). 
Saliva  is  shghtly  alkaline  in  reaction  and,  in  most  animals, 
contains  the  enzyme  salivary  amylase  or  ptyalin,  which 
acts  upon  the  starch  of  the  feedingstuffs,  finally  changing 
it  to  maltose,  or  malt  sugar,  which  is  a  much  simpler  carbohy- 
drate than  starch.  Also,  it  is  soluble  in  water.  Salivary 
amylase  acts  best  in  a  shghtly  alkaline  or  faintly  acid  solution 


THE  DIGESTION   OF    THE  NUTRIENTS  41 

and  is  destroyed  by  more  than  a  trace  of  acid.  It  is  present 
in  only  small  amounts  in  the  saliva  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
probably  lacking  in  dogs. 

In  addition  to  salivary  amylase,  the  saliva  contains  a 
small  amount  of  maltase,  an  enzyme  which  changes  maltose 
to  the  .simple  sugar  glucose. 

In  ruminants  mastication  is  usually  quite  incomplete  at 
first  but  the  food  is  later  returned  to  the  mouth  for  further 
mastication  or  rumination.  At  least  seven  out  of  every 
twenty-four  hours  are  given  to  rumination.  Inasmuch  as 
an  animal  does  not  ruminate  while  working  or  sleeping,  a  liard- 
working  ox  may  not  have  sufficient  time  in  which  to  properly 
masticate  his  feed. 

In  the  horse,  mastication  is  usually  quite  complete  when 
the  feed  is  swallowed.  In  the  pig,  mastication  is  quite  in- 
complete. 

After  the  feed  has  been  masticated,  it  is  swallowed,  passing 
by  way  of  the  esophagus  or  gullet  into  the  stomach. 

Digestion  in  the  Stomach.  —  During  and  immediately 
following  the  entrance  of  the  masticated  feed,  the  entire 
contents  of  the  stomach  are  neutral  or  shghtly  alkaline  in 
reaction  on  account  of  the  large  quantity  of  sahva  with 
which  the  feed  is  mixed.  Thus  salivary  amylase  and  malt- 
ase may  continue  to  act  for  some  little  time  after  the 
food  reaches  the  stomach. 

The  gastric  juice,  secreted  by  glands  in  the  walls  of  the 
stomach,  begins  to  flow  as  soon  as  the  masticated  feed  enters 
the  stomach.  As  the  gastric  juice  contains  0.2  to  0.5  per 
cent  of  hydrochloric  acid,  the  contents  of  the  stomach  soon 
become  acid.  The  acid  destroys  any  sahvary  amylase 
which  may  have  been  acting  upon  the  starch  and  the  enzymes 


42  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

of  the  gastric  juice,  -pepsin,  rennin,  and  gastric  lipase,  begin 
to  act.  Pepsin,  in  acid  solution,  acts  upon  the  proteins  and 
breaks  some  of  them  up  into  soluble  substances  known  as 
proteoses  and  peptones  which,  although  they  are  still  pro- 
teins, are  much  less  complex  arrangements  of  amino  acids. 
Proteoses  are  formed  in  larger  amounts  than  peptones  by 
p(^ptic  digestion.  Rennin  curdles  milk  by  the  precipitation 
of  the  casein.  This  prevents  it  from  passing  on  through  the 
alimentary  tract  undigested.  The  casein  then  is  acted  upon 
by  the  pepsin.  Commercially,  rennin  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cheese.  It  is  obtained  from  the  stomachs  of 
young  calves. 

The  gastric  juice  also  contains  gastric  lipase,  an  enzyme 
^\iii(']i  sphts  up  emulsified  fats  into  glycerin  and  fatty 
acids.  However,  inasmuch  as  gastric  lipase  does  not  act 
upon  unemulsified  fats,  its  practical  value  in  digestion  is 
small. 

Soon  after  the  feed  reaches  the  stomach,  the  muscular 
walls  of  the  stomach  begin  a  series  of  contractions,  and  the 
more  liquid  portion  of  the  feed  is  squeezed  out  into  the 
small  intestine,  while  the  more  solid  portion  is  retained  for 
fiu-ther  action  by  the  gastric  juice. 

Stomach  digestion  in  the  ruminants  or  cud-chewing  an- 
imals differs  from  that  in  the  horse  and  hog.  When  the 
feed  is  swallowed  by  a  ruminant,  the  coarser  particles  enter 
the  rumen,  while  the  more  liquid  portion  enters  the  reticulum, 
and  passes  through  the  omasum,  into  the  abomasum  or  true 
stomach ;  or  the  finely  masticated  food  may  enter  the 
omasum  (hrectly  from  the  esophagus.  The  coarser  particles 
may  be  returned  from  the  rumen  to  the  mouth  and  rechewed 
at  the  will  of  the  animal.     While  in  the  rumen  the  food  is 


THE  DIGESTION   OF   THE   NUTRIENTS  43 

thoroughly  mixed  and  the  fibrous  substances  are  mascerated 
and  broken  up  by  a  slow  churning  movement.  Also  there 
is  considerable  digestion  of  the  crude  filxu-,  pentosans,  and 
starch  by  means  of  bacteria  which  cause  them  to  ferment, 
with  the  formation  of  lactic,  acetic,  and  butyric  acids,  and 
carbon  dioxide  and  methane  gases.  The  acids  may  be 
utilized  as  food  by  the  animal  body,  but  the  gases  are  useless 
and  are  excreted  through  the  lungs  and  the  digestive  tract. 
However,  the  digestion  of  the  cellulose  sets  free  such  nutrients 
as  protein,  starch,  and  fat  which  are  inclosed  in  cells  whose 
walls,  as  has  been  stated,  are  composed  of  cellulose.  If  the 
fermentation  becomes  too  extensive  and  the  gases  are  formed 
faster  than  they  are  removed  from  the  body,  as  is  often  the 
case  after  large  amounts  of  fresh  grass  are  eaten,  the  animal 
''  bloats." 

The  finer  and  more  liquid  part  of  the  feed  tends  to  accu- 
mulate in  the  reticulum,  which  regulates  its  passage  into  the 
abomasum.  The  reticulum  also  furnishes  water  to  moisten 
the  feed  when  it  is  regurgitated,  and  regulates  its  passage 
into  the  esophagus  when  it  is  returned  to  the  mouth  for 
rumination. 

The  food  may  find  its  way  into  the  omasum  either  directly 
from  the  esophagus  after  remastication  or  from  the  rumen  or 
reticulum.  The  main  function  of  the  omasum  is  to  com- 
press and  break  up  any  remaining  coarse  parts  of  the  feed, 
which  it  does  by  crushing  and  rasping  between  its  powerful, 
horny,  muscular  leaves.  Its  contents  are  always  rather 
dry,  as  the  liquid  portion  of  the  feed  is  squeezed  out  imme- 
diately and  forced  on  into  the  abomasum  or  true  stomach. 
The  abomasum  secretes  the  gastric  juice  whose  enzymes 
act  practically  the  same  as  in  3ase  of  the  horse  and  hog  al- 


44  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

ready  described.     The  course  of  the  food  through  the  stomach 
of  a  ruminant  is  sliown  in  Figure  8. 

Digestion  in  the  Small  Intestine.  —  As  a  result  of  the  di- 
gestion in  the  stomach,  the  food  materials  are  reduced  to  an 

acid,  semi-fluid, 
gray,  pulpy 
mass,  known  as 
''  chyme."  In 
the  upper  part 
of  the  small 
intestine,  the 
chyme  is  acted 
upon  by  three 
different  diges- 
tive fluids,  —  the 

Fig.  8.  —  Stomach  of  a  sheep,  showing  the  course  .      .    . 

of  the  feed.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.)     A,  pancreatic  JUlCe, 

rumen;    B,  reticulum;   C,  omasum;    D,  abomasum  ;  +v>„  Kil^-v    oi-»rl  +V.r 

E,  esophagus;    F,  pylorus.  ]^^  ^\^^'  ^^^^  ^'^^ 

intestinal  juice, 
Y/hich  render  it  alkaline  in  reaction,  and  stop  any  further 
action  by  the  pepsin  upon  the  proteins. 

The  pancreatic  juice  is  secreted  by  the  pancreas  (or  sweet- 
breads), a  gland  which  is  located  along  the  upper  part  of  the 
small  intestine.  It  contains  the  enzymes  trypsin,  erepsin, 
pancreatic  amylase  or  amylopsin,  pancreatic  lipase  or  steapsin, 
and  small  amounts  of  maltase.  Sucrase  or  invertin  is  some- 
times found,  while  lactase  is  present  in  young  animals. 
They  act  best  in  alkaline  solution.  Trypsin  acts  upon  the 
proteins  which  the  pepsin  has  not  broken  up,  and  also  upon 
some  of  the  proteoses  and  peptones  formed  by  the  previous 
action  of  the  pepsin.  Trypsin,  however,  carries  the  de- 
composition of  the  proteins  further  than  does  jM^psin.     It 


THE  DIGESTION   OF   THE  NUTRIENTS  45 

not  only  produces  proteoses  and  peptones,  but  in  addition, 
it  breaks  up  some  of  these  compounds  into  peptids,  which 
are  still  simpler  combinations  of  only  a  few  amino  acids, 
and  into  the  simple  amino  acids  themselves. 

Erepsin  completes  the  action  upon  the  proteins  by  break- 
ing up  the  proteoses,  peptones,  and  peptids  into  the  amino 
acids.  With  the  exceptions  of  casein,  gelatin,  fil^rin,  and 
a  few  other  proteins,  erepsin  does  not  act  upon  the  unchanged 
proteins,  but  only  upon  the  products  of  their  partial  de- 
composition. 

Pancreatic  amylase  acts  upon  the  starch  of  the  feed. 
Its  action  is  mu.ch  more  pronounced  than  that  of  sahvary 
amylase  because  it  ordinarily  has  a  longer  time  to  act  upon 
the  food  and  is  present  in  greater  abundance.  Like  sali- 
vary amylase,  it  changes  starch  to  maltose. 

Lipase  acts  upon  the  fats  of  the  feed,  breaking  them  up 
into  the  fatty  acids  and  glycerin  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. Most  of  the  fatty  acids  then  unite  with  the  alkaline 
salts  of  the  pancreatic  juice  and  bile,  producing  soaps.  (See 
page  20).  The  resulting  soap  .solution,  together  with  the 
bile,  forms  a  fine  emulsion  with  the  remaining  fats  and 
enables  the  lipase  to  come  in  much  closer  contact  with  them 
and  complete  their  digestion. 

Maltase  acts  upon  maltose  with  the  formation  of  glucose. 
Sucrase  acts  upon  sucrose  ^vith  the  formation  of  glucose  and 
fructose,  while  lactase  acts  upon  lactose  with  the  production 
of  glucose  and  galactose. 

The  bile  is  a  yellowish-green,  alkaline,  very  bitter  Uquid 
secreted  by  the  Hver  and  stored  in  the  gall  bladder,  except 
in  case  of  the  horse  as  noted  on  page  38.  It  contains  no 
enzymes,  its  chief  digestiv^e  function  Ije^ing  due  to  its  solvent 


4G  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

action.  It  acts  as  a  solvent  of  the  fats  and  fatty  acids  and 
thus  assists  in  their  digestion  and  absorption.  Its  presence 
also  increases  the  activity  of  some  of  the  enzymes  of  the 
small  intestine,  particularly  of  pancreatic  lipase. 

The  intestinal  juice  is  secreted  by  small  glands  in  the  walls 
of  the  upper  and  middle  part  of  the  small  intestine.  It 
contains  the  enzymes,  erepsin,  sucrase,  maltase,  and  lactaf^e. 

Erepsin  is  much  more  abundant  in  the  intestinal  than  in 
the  pancreatic  juice.  It  acts  upon  the  proteoses  and  pep- 
tones produced  by  the  previous  action  of  pepsin  and  trypsin 
upon  proteins.  It  breaks  them  up  further  into  the  amino 
acids.  Its  action  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  erepsin  of  the 
pancreatic  juice. 

Sucrase  acts  upon  sucrose  or  cane  sugar,  sphtting  it  up 
into  the  simple  sugars,  glucose  and  fructose.  Maltase  acts 
upon  the  maltose  formed  by  the  action  of  sahvary  and  pan- 
creatic amylases  upon  starch.  It  spHts  it  up  with  the 
formation  of  glucose.  Lactase  acts  upon  lactose  or  milk 
sugar,  splitting  it  up  into  the  simple  sugars,  glucose  and 
galactose,  the  latter  being  quite  similar  to  glucose. 

In  addition  to  the  enzymes,  the  intestinal  juice  contains 
a  substance  called  enterokinase,  which  has  the  property, 
when  mixed  with  pancreatic  juice,  of  enormously  increasing 
the  action  of  the  latter  on  proteins. 

Digestion  in  the  Large  Intestine.  —  When  the  contents 
of  the  small  intestine  pass  into  the  large  intestine,  they  still 
contain  a  certain  amount  of  undigested  and  unabsorbed 
material.  This  remains  in  the  large  intestine  for  a  consider- 
able period  of  time  during  which  the  digestive  processes 
started  in  the  small  intestine  continue  their  action  to  a 
certain  extent.     In  the  large  intestine  of  the  hog  and  of  the 


THE  DIGESTION   OF    THE   NUTRIENTS  47 

horse,  considerable  digestion  of  the  crude  fiber  may  occur  from 
bacterial  actions  similar  to  those  already  described  as  taking 
place  in  the  rumen  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Also,  there  is  consid- 
erable bacterial  action  upon  the  undigested  proteins,  causing 
their  putrefaction,  with  the  formation  of  proteoses,  peptones, 
amino  acids,  and  numerous  other  products,  as  indol,  skatol, 
amines,  ptomaines,  and  hydrogen  sulphide,  which  give  to  the 
feces  their  offensive  odor,  and  which,  in  some  cases,  are 
toxic  or  poisonous  to  the  animal  organism  if  absorbed  in 
large  quantities.  After  remaining  in  the  large  intestine 
for  some  time,  the  undigested  and  unabsorbed  feed  residues, 
together  with  remains  of  the  digestive  juices,  living  and  dead 
bacteria,  and  dead  cells  from  the  walls  of  the  digestive  tract 
are  passed  on  into  the  lower  part  of  the  large  intestine,  or 
rectum,  and  excreted  from  the  body  through  the  anus  as 
feces. 

Absorption.  —  Absorption  is  the  process  by  which  the 
final  products  of  the  digestion  of  the  feed  are  taken  into  the 
blood  and  lymph  for  final  distribution  to  the  tissues  of  the 
body.  The  greater  part  of  the  digested  food  material  is 
absorbed  from  the  small  intestine,  while  smaller  amounts 
are  absorbed  from  the  large  intestine.  The  wall  of  the 
small  intestine  is  lined  with  numerous,  conical,  round,  or 
club-shaped  projections  known  as  villi,  which  extend  out 
into  the  contents  of  the  small  intestine.  Figure  9  shows 
a  cross-section  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  small  intes- 
tine much  enlarged.  The  partially  digested  food  entering 
from  the  stomach  is  poured  })ack  and  forth  in  the  upper  end 
of  the  small  intestine  in  order  to  expose  it  sufficiently  to 
the  absorbing  action  of  the  vilh.  It  is  said  that  the  contents 
of  the  small  intestine  of  the  horse  are  passed  to  and  fro  twenty 


48 


PBINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


times  before  passing  on  to  the  large  intestine.  Each  villus 
(singular  of  villi)  contains  a  lacteal  of  the  lymphatic  system, 
surrounded  by  a  net  work  of  fine  blood  capillaries.  Figure 
10  shows  the  structure  of  a  villus  much   enlarged.      The 


^\  MUSCUIAR 
"  COAT 


Fig.  9.  —  Cross  section  of   mucous  nienibrane  of  .small  iutestiuc,  showing 
capillaries  and  lacteals.     (Jordan,  Principles  of  Human  Nutrition.) 

products  of  the  digestion  of  the  proteins,  i.e.  amino  acids, 
and  of  the  starches  and  sugars,  i.e.  glucose  and  other  simple 
sugars,  pass  into  the  capillaries,  through  the  portal  vein 
to  the  Hver,  and  into  the  general  circulation  of  the  blood. 
The  products  of  the  digestion  of  crude  fiber,  v.e.  salts  of 
acetic  and  butyric  acids,  also  are  probably  absorbed  into  the 
capillaries.     In  passing  through  the  walls  of  the  villi,  the 


THE  DIGESTION   OF   THE  NUTRIENTS 


49 


soaps  and  glycerin  formed  in  the  digestion  of  the  fats  are 
recombined,  forming  fats  again,  and  hberating  the  alkali  of 
the  soaps.  The  fats  enter  the  lacteals  instead  of  the 
capillaries  and  are  carried  into  the  lymphatic  system,  passing 
into  the  general  circulation  of  the  blood 
through  the  thoracic  duct,  which  is 
located  in  the  neck.  Figure  11  shows 
the  distended  lacteals  during  absorption 
in  case  of  the  horse.  The  mineral  matter 
of  the  feed  is  probabl}^  absorbed  from 
the  small  intestine  \vithout  any  pre- 
vious digestion,  other  than  simple  solu- 
tion in  the  digestive  juices. 

During  the  comparatively  long  time 
tliat  the  feed  residues  remain  in  the 
large  intestine  there  is  a  marked  ab- 
sorption of  water.  There  is  also  an 
absorption  of  some  of  the  products  of 
digestion    by   the    enzymes    carried    in 

from  the  small  intestine  and  of  some  of   ,.^^°-   lo.  — Longitu- 
dinal    section     of     a 
the   products  of  bacterial    fermentation  \allus,     showing:     a, 

and    putrefaction.       This    takes     place  faVier^V,  lact^e'ai" 
through  the  capillaries   in  the  walls  of  (Joidan,   Piincipie.s  of 

Human  Nutrition.) 

the  large  mtestme. 

Concerning  digestion,  Mathews  ^  makes  the  following 
statement :  ''In  short,  the  main  object  of  the  whole  process 
of  cUgestion  appears  to  be  to  resolve  the  various  food  sub- 
stances into  those  common  building  stones,  amino  acids, 
monosaccharides  {i.e.  simple  sugars,  as  glucose)  and  fatty 
acids,  which  are  the  common  basis  of  all  proteins,  carbohy- 

1  "Physiological  Chemistry,"  p.  446. 


50 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


clrates,  and  fats.  Thus  each  organism  can  use  these  building 
stones  in  the  proportion  and  order  it  needs  to  construct  its 
own  proteins  and  organized  matter,  which  in  each  organism 


Fig.  11.  —  Loop  of  small  intestine  of  the  horse  during  active  absorption 
showing  distended  lacteals.    (Smith,  Manual  of  Veterinary  Physiology.) 

has  an  architecture  as  distinct  and  characteristic   as  the 
form  of  the  organism  itself." 


SX3MMARY    OF    THE    DIGESTION    AND    ABSORPTION    OF    THE 
NUTRIENTS 

Inasmuch  as  the  processes  of  digestion  and  absorption 
are  so  complex,  it  may  assist  the  student  to  summarize  the 
digestion  and  absorption  of  each  individual  class  of  nutrients. 

Water.  —  Water,  of  course,  needs  no  digestion.  It  is  ab- 
sorbed to  a  slight  extent  by  the  capillaries  of  the  stomach 
and  to  a  large  extent  by  the  capillaries  of  the  villi  of  the 
small  intestine,  and  by  the  capillaries  of  the  walls  of  the 
large  intestine. 


THE   DIGESTION   OF   THE  NUTRIENTS  51 

Mineral  Matter.  —  Mineral  matter  probably  undergoes 
no  digestion  other  than  simple  solution.  It  probably  is  ab- 
sorbed principally  from  the  small  intestine. 

Protein.  —  There  is  no  action  upon  proteins  in  the  mouth 
except  mastication.  They  are  first  acted  upon  in  the  stomach 
by  the  pepsin  of  the  gastric  juice  which,  in  acid  solution, 
breaks  up  some  of  the  complex  proteins  into  the  simpler 
and  soluble  proteoses  and  peptones.  Rennin,  in  the  gastric 
juice,  coagulates  the  casein  of  milk,  which  is  then  acted  upon 
by  the  pepsin. 

Passing  from  the  stomach  into  the  upper  end  of  the  small 
intestine,  the  unchanged  proteins,  the  proteoses,  and  the 
peptones  encounter  the  more  active  enzyme,  trypsin,  of 
the  pancreatic  juice,  and  the  enzyme,  erepsin,  of  the  pan- 
creatic and  of  the  intestinal  juices.  Trypsin,  in  alkaUne 
solution,  in  the  presence  of  the  enterokinase  of  the  intestinal 
juice,  attacks  the  remaining  proteins,  breaking  them  down 
into  proteoses,  peptones,  peptides,  and  the  amino  acids. 
It  also  attacks  some  of  the  proteoses  and  peptones  previously 
formed  by  the  peptic  digestion,  breaking  them  down  still 
further  into  peptids  and  amino  acids.  The  proteoses,  pep- 
tones, and  peptids  are  acted  upon  by  the  erepsin  which,  in 
alkahne  solution,  breaks  them  down  further  into  the  amino 
acids.  Erepsin  does  not  act  upon  unchanged  protein,  how- 
ever, except  in  the  cases  of  casein,  fibrin,  gelatin,  and  a  few 
others.  The  amino  acids,  as  they  are  formed,  are  absorbed  by 
the  villi  of  the  small  intestine  into  the  capillaries  and  pass  via 
the  portal  vein  through  the  liver  into  the  general  circulation. 
Concerning  the  digestion  and  absorption  of  jiroteins,  Un- 
derhill  ^  makes  the   following  statement :  "  .   .  .  demohtion 

1  "  The  Physiology  of  the  Amino  Acids,"  p.  34. 


52  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 

of  the  protein  molecule  is  not  of  the  nature  of  an  explosion 
resulting  in  a  large  number  of  fragments  scattered  about, 
but  instead  it  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  kind  of  slow  erosion 
whereby  certain  projecting  pieces  are  rubbed  or  broken  oIT. 
.  .  .  absorption  takes  place  rapidly  and  the  erosion  prod- 
ucts have  a  tendency  to  disappear  from  the  alimentary 
canal." 

Any  proteins  which  have  escaped  digestion  and  absorp- 
tion thus  far  are  then  passed  on  into  the  large  intestine,  where 
the  action  of  the  trypsin  and  erepsin  may  continue  for  some 
time.  Here  the  proteins  are  attacked  also  by  bacteria, 
and  putrefaction  takes  place  with  the  formation  of  the  same 
products  as  formed  in  tryptic  digestion,  proteoses,  peptones, 
peptids,  and  finally  amino  acids.  The  amino  acids  are  at- 
tacked by  bacteria,  with  the  formation  of  such  products 
as  indol,  skatol,  amines,  ptomaines,  and  hydrogen-sulphide, 
which,  if  absorbed  in  large  quantities,  may  act  as  toxins  to 
the  animal  organism.  A  part  of  the  products  of  digestion 
in  the  large  intestine  is  absorbed  through  the  capillaries  of 
the  intestinal  walls  and  passes  via  the  portal  vein  through 
the  liver  into  the  general  circulation.  Any  undigested  or 
unabsorbed  residues  are  excreted  in  the  feces. 

Nitrogen-free  Extract.  —  Nitrogen-free  extract  consists  of 
all  the  carbohydrates  in  the  feedingstuff  except  those  in- 
cluded under  crude  fiber.  The  principal  constituent  of  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  of  most  feedingstuff s  is  starch.  Of  less 
importance  is  sucrose  or  cane  sugar.  Lactose  or  milk  sugar 
is  the  principal  constituent  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of 
milk. 

The  first  digestion  of  starch  occurs  in  the  mouth,  where 
the  saUvary  amylase,  if  present,  acts  upon  some  of  the  starch 


THE  DIGESTION    OF   THE  NUTRIENTS  53 

with  the  production  of  maltose.  The  sahva  contains  also  a 
small  amount  of  maltase,  which  may  change  some  of  the 
maltose  to  glucose.  These  actions  may  continue  after  the 
masticated  feed  has  reached  the  stomach,  until  it  is  rendered 
acid  by  the  flow  of  the  gastric  juice.  In  case  of  ruminants, 
some  digestion  may  take  place  in  the  rumen  by  fermenta- 
tions, with  the  production  of  acetic  and  butyric  acids,  and 
carbon  dioxide  and  methane  gases.  However,  the  principal 
digestion  of  starch  takes  place  in  the  small  intestine.  Here 
the  enzyme,  pancreatic  amylase  of  the  pancreatic  juice, 
acts  upon  starch,  converting  it  to  maltose.  The  enzyme, 
maltase,  of  the  intestinal  and  of  the  pancreatic  juices  then 
acts  upon  the  maltose,  converting  it  to  the  simple  sugar 
glucose. 

Sucrase,  another  enzyme  found  in  the  intestinal  and 
pancreatic  juices,  acts  upon  any  sucrose  or  cane  sugar, 
spHtting  it  up  into  the  simple  sugars,  glucose  and  fructose. 

Lactase,  the  third  sugar-spUtting  enzyme  of  the  intestinal 
and  pancreatic  juices,  acts  upon  lactose  or  milk  sugar  with 
the  formation  of  the  simple  sugars  glucose  and  galactose. 

The  starches  and  sugars  are  absorbed  in  the  form  of  the 
simple  sugars,  glucose,  fructose,  and  galactose,  glucose 
being  predominant.  These  sugars  are  absorbed  by  the  villi 
of  the  small  intestine  and  pass  into  the  capillaries,  through 
the  hver,  and  into  the  general  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Some  digestion,  both  by  enzyme  action  and  by  bacterial 
fermentation,  may  take  place  in  the  large  intestine,  the 
products  of  which  are  absorbed  there  by  the  capillaries. 

Crude  Fiber.  —  Crude  fiber  probably  is  digested  only 
by  the  action  of  bacteria,  as  no  special  enzyme  for  the  diges- 
tion of  crude  fiber  or  cellulose  has  been  found.     In  ruminants, 


54  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

the  principal  digestion  of  crude  fiber  occurs  in  the  rumen  or 
paunch,  due  to  bacterial  fermentation.  This  fermentation 
produces  acetic  and  butyric  acids,  which  may  serve  as 
nutrients  to  the  animal  body,  and  large  quantities  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  methane  gases,  which  in  part  are  absorbed  by 
the  blood  and  excreted  through  the  lungs,  and  in  part  are 
excreted  directly  by  way  of  the  alimentary  tract. 

Further  fermentation  of  the  crude  fiber  takes  place  in 
the  large  intestine,  especially  of  the  hog  and  of  the  horse, 
practically  the  same  products  being  formed  as  in  the  paunch 
fermentation  of  the  ruminants. 

The  acids  thus  formed  unite  with  alkahes  present  to  form 
salts,  in  which  form  they  probably  are  absorbed  into  the 
capillaries  of  the  small  and  large  intestines.  The  undigested 
portions  of  the  crude  fiber  pass  from  the  body  in  the  feces. 

Fats.  —  Emulsified  fats  are  acted  upon  in  the  stomach  by 
the  gastric  lipase,  which  spHts  them  up  into  glycerin  and 
fatty  acids.  However,  the  unemulsified  fats  undergo  little 
or  no  digestion  until  they  reach  the  small  intestine,  where 
they  are  acted  upon  by  the  enzyme,  lipase,  of  the  pancreatic 
juice.  This  enzyme,  in  alkaline  solution,  sphts  up  the  fats 
into  glycerin  and  fatty  acids.  The  latter  unite  ^vith  the 
alkahes  of  the  pancreatic  juice  and  bile  to  form  soaps. 
The  solution  of  the  soaps  thus  formed  causes  an  emulsion 
to  be  formed  with  the  remaining  fats,  enabling  the  lipase  to 
come  in  closer  contact  with  them.  The  bile  aids  in  the 
digestion  and  absorption  of  fats  by  assisting  in  the  solution 
of  the  fats,  fatty  acids,  and  soaps.  Tlie  ])resenee  of  ])ile 
also  increases  the  activity  of  the  pancreatic  li])ase. 

The  soaps,  fatty  acids,  and  glycerin  are  absorbed  through 
the  walls  of  the  villi  of  the  small  intestine.     In  passing 


THE  DIGESTION   OF   THE   NUTRIENTS  55 

through  the  walls  the  soaps  are  split  up  into  the  alkali  and 
the  fatty  acids  of  which  they  are  formed  and  the  fatty  acids 
reunite  with  the  glycerin  to  form  fat  again.  The  fats  pass 
into  the  lacteals  and  are  carried  into  the  lymphatic  cir- 
culation and  then  through  the  thoracic  duct  into  the 
blood. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE    DIGESTIBILITY    OF    FEEDINGSTUFFS 

From  a  nutritive  standpoint,  only  those  portions  of  the 
nutrients  whicli  are  digested  and  absorbed  are  of  value  to 
the  animal  body.  In  a  sense,  food  is  not  within  th^  body 
until  it  enters  the  l)lood.  The  undigested  portion  of  the 
ration,  although  it  may  })e  of  value  in  distending  the  digestive 
tract  and  for  other  purposes,  has  no  value  as  a  means  of 
support  to  the  animal.  Hence  a  knowledge  of  the  amounts 
of  the  nutrients  digested,  and  of  the  factors  affecting  the 
digestibility  of  the  nutrients  of  the  various  feedingstuffs,  is 
of  considerable  practical  importance. 

Coefficients  of  Digestibility.  —  The  process  of  digestion 
in  the  farm  animals  usually  is  quite  incomplete,  the  un- 
digested portions  of  the  ration  being  excreted  in  the  feces. 
Thus  the  amount  of  a  nutrient  digested  is  equal  to  the 
amount  of  that  nutrient  consumed,  less  the  amount  of  it 
excreted  in  the  feces.  The  percentage  of  the  nutrient  that 
is  digested  is  known  as  the  "  coefficient  of  digestibiUty." 
The  coefficient  of  digestibility  is  obtained  by  di\dcUng  the 
amount  of  the  nutrient  digested  by  the  total  amount  of  the 
nutrient  consumed,  and  multipl3dng  the  result  by  100. 

Determination  of  Coefficients  of  Digestibility.  —  The 
coefficients  of  digestibihty  of  the  different  nutrients  of  many 
feeds  have  been  determined  by  what  are  known  as  digestion 

56 


THE   DIGESTIBILITY   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS 


o< 


experiments.  In  a  digestion  experiment,  the  feedingstuff  is 
first  analyzed  to  determine  the  percentage  of  each  nutrient 
present.  The  animal  then  is  fed  weighed  quantities  of  the 
feedingstuff  under  experimentation  for  a  period  of  one  or  two 
weeks,  called  the  prehminary  period,  during  which  time  the 
residues  of  previous  feeding  are  excreted  from  the  body. 


■ 

1 

n 

^ 

\ 

w 

r 

t  X* 

s 

4 

r^ 

1^ 

^^9 

i 

i 

(Jl 

m 

Fig.   12.  —  Digestion  harness  on  a  pig.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 


The  preliminary  period  is  followed  by  a  test  period  of  one 
to  three  weeks  in  length.  During  the  test  period,  the  ration 
is  weighed  carefully,  deducting  the  weight  of  any  uneaten 
residue.  The  feces  of  the  animal  are  collected  usually  in  a 
rubber  bag  which  fastens  on  to  the  hindquarters  of  the  animal 
by  a  light  harness.  Figure  12  shows  a  digestion  harness  on 
a  pig.  Sometimes,  especially  in  the  cases  of  cattle  and  horses, 
they  are  collected  with  a  shovel  by  attendants  who  watch  the 


58  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 

animal  day  and  night.  Other  times,  especially  in  case 
of  hogs,  the  animal  is  put  into  a  stall  or  cage  which  has  a 
floor  made  of  coarse  wire  screening  through  which  the  feces 
drop  on  to  a  cloth  stretched  below.  After  collection,  the  feces 
are  weighed  and  analyzed.  Knowing  the  total  amount  of 
each  nutrient  which  the  animal  consumes  in  a  given  time,  and 
the  amount  of  each  nutrient  which  it  excretes  in  the  feces 
during  the  same  time,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  calculate  the 
amount  of  each  nutrient  digested,  and  the  coefficient  of 
digestibility  of  each  nutrient  of  that  particular  feed.  For 
example,  during  a  seven-day  digestion  period,  a  hog  consumed 
49  pounds  of  corn  which  had  the  follo^\^ng  chemical  composi- 
tion :  dry  substance,  86.38  per  cent ;  crude  protein,  9.80 
per  cent ;  nitrogen-free  extract,  70.03  per  cent ;  crude  fiber, 
1.91  per  cent;  and  fat,  3.47  per  cent.  During  this  period, 
the  animal  excreted  12.6  pounds  of  feces,  which  had  the 
following  chemical  composition :  dry  substance,  36.48  per 
cent ;  crude  protein,  6.83  per  cent ;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
16.72  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  4.93  per  cent ;  and  fat,  4.65 
per  cent. 

In  order  to  find  the  coefficients  of  digestibility  of  the 
nutrients  of  the  corn  in  this  experiment,  one  first  obtains  the 
total  amount  of  each  nutrient  consumed  by  the  hog,  by 
multiplying  the  amount  of  corn  consumed,  —  49.0  pounds, 
by  the  per  cent  of  each  nutrient  in  the  corn,  and  then 
dividing  the  result  by  100.  Thus  the  total  dry  substance 
consumed  was  49.0  times  86.38  divided  by  100,  or  42.33 
pounds.  The  amounts  of  crude  protein,  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract, crude  fiber  and  fat  consumed  are  ol)tained  in  similar 
manner. 

The  next  step  consists  in  determining  the  amount  of  each 


THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS 


59 


nutrient  excreted  in  the  feces,  by  multiplying  the  weight  of 
the  feces  by  the  per  cent  of  each  nutrient  present  in  them, 
and  then  dividing  the  result  by  100.  Thus  the  amount  of 
dry  substance  excreted  in  the  feces  was  12.6  times  36.48 
divided  by  100,  or  4.6  pounds.  The  total  amount  of  each 
nutrient  consumed,  less  the  amount  of  that  nutrient  ex- 
creted in  the  feces,  gives  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  digested. 
Thus  in  the  example  the  hog  digested  42.33  minus  4.60  or 
37.73  pounds  of  dry  substance.  The  amount  of  each  nu- 
trient digested,  divided  by  the  total  amount  of  the  cor- 
responding nutrient  consumed,  and  the  result  multiplied 
by  100,  gives  the  coefficient  of  digestibihty  of  each  nutrient. 
Thus  the  coefficient  of  digestibihty  of  the  dry  substance  in 
the  above  experiment  was  37.73  times  100  divided  by  42.33, 
or  89.13  per  cent. 

In  the  preceding  example,  the  coefficients  of  digestibility 
are  calculated  as  follows : 


Dry 

Sub- 
stance 

Crude 
Protein 

N.-PREE 

Extract 

Crude 
Fiber 

Fat 

49.0  lb.  corn 

12.6  lb.  feces 

Nutrients  digested  .     .     . 

Coefficient  of  digestibility, 

per  cent 

Lb. 

42.33 

4.60 

37.73 

89.13 

Lb. 
4.80 

0.86 
3.94 

82.08 

Lb. 

34.31 

2.11 

32.20 

93.85 

Lb. 

0.94 
0.62 
0.32 

34.04 

Lb. 

1.70 
0.59 
1.11 

65.29 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  coefficients  of  diges- 
tibility are  not  exact  because,  as  has  already  been  shown  on 
page  47,  the  feces  consist  of  dead  and  li\ang  bacteria,  dead 
cells  from  the  digestive  tract,  and  the  residues  of  the  digestive 
juices,  as  well  as  undigested  food  residues.     However,  such 


60  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

coefficients  of  digestibility  are  approximately  correct,  and 
they  must  be  used  until  methods  of  separating  the  food 
residues  from  the  other  constituents  of  the  feces  are  worked 
out. 

There  are  many  feeds  which  cannot  be  fed  alone  to  cer- 
tain classes  of  animals.  For  example,  such  feeds  as  corn 
and  oats  cannot  be  fed  to  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  unless  in 
combination  ^\^th  some  roughage,  as  hay  or  straw,  while 
such  feeds  as  tankage  and  oil  meal  cannot  be  fed  alone  to 
hogs.  Thus  it  is  impossible  to  determine  directly  the  coef- 
ficients of  digestibiUty  of  many  of  the  concentrates.  In 
determining  the  digestibiUty  of  such  a  feedingstuff,  it  is 
fed  with  a  feed  whose  coefficients  of  digestibiUty  have  been 
determined  previously.  The  total  consumption  of  each 
nutrient  {i.e.,  from  the  entire  ration)  and  the  total  amount 
of  each  nutrient  excreted  in  the  feces  is  determined  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  amount  of  each  nutrient  digested  then 
iS  obtained  by  subtracting  the  amount  of  each  nutrient 
excreted  from  the  total  amount  of  the  corresponding  nu- 
trient consumed.  The  amount  of  digestible  nutrients  con- 
sumed from  the  feedingstuff  whose  digestibiUty  is  known  is 
calculated  by  multiphdng  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  con- 
sumed from  that  feedingstuff  by  its  previously  determined 
coeffi?ient  of  digestibility,  and  dividing  the  result  by  100. 
Subtracting  these  results  from  the  total  amount  of  each 
respective  nutrient  digested,  the  amount  of  each  nutrient 
digested  from  the  other  feed  is  obtained.  The  coefficient 
of  digestibiUty  then  is  calculated  as  before. 

For  example,  in  a  digestion  period  of  seven  days  a  hog 
was  fed  a  ration  consisting  of  ground  corn  and  tankage,  the 
coefficients  of  digestibility  of  the  corn  being  determined  in 


THE  DIGESTIBILITY   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS 


Gl 


a  previous  experiment.     The  chemical  composition  of  the 
feeds  used  and  the  feces  excreted  was  as  follows : 


Corn   . 
Tankage 
Feces  . 


Dry  Sub- 
stance 


Per  cent 

86.38 
94.56 
42.22 


Crude 
Protein 


Per  cent 

9.80 
60.91 
14.63 


N.-FREE 

Extract 


Per  cent 

70.03 

4.30 

14  91 


Crude 
Fiber 


Per  cent 

1.91 
3.95 
5.17 


Fat 


Per  cent 

3.47 

13.69 

1.77 


During  the  digestion  period,  the  hog  consumed  28  pounds 
of  corn  and  7  pounds  of  tankage  and  excreted  10.3  pounds  of 
feces.  Having  these  data,  one  calculates  the  amount  of 
each  nutrient  digested  as  outlined  on  page  59. 


Dry  Sub- 

Crude 

N.-FREE 

Crude 

Fat 

stance 

Protein 

Extract 

Fiber 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

28  lb.  corn    .     .     . 

24.19 

2.74 

19.61 

0.53 

0.97 

7  lb.  tankage     .     . 

6.62 

4.26 

0.30 

0.28 

0.96 

Total  ration      .     . 

30.81 

7.00 

19.91 

0.81 

1.93 

10.3  lb.  feces     .     . 

4.35 

1  51 

1.54 

0.53 

0.18 

Nutrients  digested 

26.46 

5.49 

18.37 

0.28 

1.75 

Having  determined  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  digested 
from  the  entire  ration,  the  next  step  is  to  determine  the 
amount  of  each  nutrient  digested  from  the  corn.  From  a 
previous  test  period  the  coefficients  of  digestibihty  of  corn 
were  found  to  be  as  follows :  dry  substance,  88.2  per  cent ; 
crude  protein,  78.8  per  cent;  nitr:gen-free  extract,  93.4 
per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  30.0  per  cent ;  and  fat,  67.0  per  cent. 
Thus,   knowing  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  of  the  corn 


62 


PniNCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


consumed,  and  the  percentage  of  it  which  is  digestible,  one 
obtains  the  amount  of  each  digestible  nutrient  in  the  corn 
by  multiplying  the  total  amount  of  each  nutrient  of  the  corn 
by  its  coefficient  of  digestibihty  and  dividing  the  result  by 
100.  Obviousl}^,  subtracting  the  amount  of  digestible  nu- 
trients of  the  corn  from  the  digestible  nutrients  of  the  total 
ration  leaves  the  amount  of  nutrients  digested  from  the 
tankage.  Then  dividing  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  di- 
gested from  the  tankage  by  the  amount  of  the  correspond- 
ing nutrient  consumed  from  the  tankage,  and  multiplying 
the  result  by  100  gives  the  coefficients  of  digestibility  of  the 
nutrients  of  the  tankage. 

Returning  to  the  example  cited,  the  coefficients  of  diges- 
tibihty of  tankage  are  calculated  as  follows : 


Digested  from  total  ra- 
tion       

Digested  from  corn    .     . 

Digested  from  tankage  . 

Coefficient  of  digesti- 
bility of  tankage  (per- 
cent)      


Dry  Sub- 
stance 

Crude 
Protein 

N.-FREE 

Extract 

Crude 
Fiber 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

26.46 

21.34 

5.12 

5.49 
2.16 
3.33 

18.37 

18.32 

0.05 

0.28 

0.16 
0.12 

77.34 

78.17 

16.67 

42.86 

Fat 


Lb. 

1.75 
0.65 
1.10 


114.59 


This  indirect  method  of  calculating  the  coefficients  of 
digestibihty  is  open  to  criticism  because  all  of  the  difference 
between  the  values  for  the  single  feed  and  the  corresponding 
values  for  the  combined  feeds  is  credited  to  the  single  feed, 
whereas  it  is  probable  that  in  the  combined  feeds  each  feed 
exerts  an  influence  upon  the  digestibihty  of  the  other.     Also 


THE  DIGESTIBILITY   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS 


63 


all  the  errors  of  the  determination  are  thrown  upon  one  feed. 
Consequently  absurd  results  are  often  obtained,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  fat  in  the  previous 
example.  Thus  at  the  Illinois  Station/  Grindley,  Carmi- 
chael,  and  NewHn  fed  four  pigs  a  ration  of  middings  alone  ; 
later  a  ration  of  com  and  middlings  in  equal  parts  ;  and  then 
a  ration  of  corn  alone.  The  coefficients  of  digestibihty  of 
corn  and  middUngs  as  actually  determined  were  materially 
different  from  the  coefficients  calculated  indirectly  by  the 
method  just  described.  Thus  the  average  coefficients  of 
middhngs  when  determined  directly  and  when  determined 
indirectly  when  fed  with  corn,  were  as  follows : 


Dry 

Substance 

Crude 
Protein 

N.-FREE 

Extract 

Crude 
Fiber 

Fat 

Alone 

With  corn     .     . 

Per  cent 

74.3 
70.2 

Per  cent 

79.9 
77.5 

Per  cejit 

81.3 

77.2 

Per  cent 

22.7 
0.2 

Per  cent 

84.7 
89.3 

This  shows  that  the  indirect  method  is  not  exact  by  any 
means.  However,  this  is  the  only  method  of  determining 
the  coefficients  of  digestibility  for  each  feed  when  more  than 
one  feed  is  used  and,  until  a  better  one  is  formulated,  it 
must  be  used. 

Knowing  the  coefficients  of  digestibility  of  two  feeds,  a 
third  may  be  added  to  the  ration,  and  its  digestibihty  cal- 
culated in  a  similar  manner. 

Digestibility  of  Mineral  Matter.  —  Owing  to  the  many 
errors  involved  in  the  determination,  and  the  great  variability 
of  the  results  obtained,  the  coefficients  of  digestibility  of  min- 

^  Unpublished  data. 


64  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

eral  matter  are  of  little  practical  value,  and  hence  they  are  not 
given  often. 

Digestibility  of  Crude  Protein.  —  Protein  from  the  con- 
centrates is  digested  more  thoroughly,  as  a  rule,  than  pro- 
tein from  the  roughages.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  protein  of  the  roughages  is  surrounded  by  tougher, 
more  fibrous  cell  walls  than  the  protein  of  the  concentrates. 
Protein  of  the  nitrogenous  concentrates  {i.e.  concentrates 
containing  a  large  amount  of  protein)  such  as  the  oil  meals, 
legume  seeds,  distillers'  grains,  and  gluten  feed  have  the 
highest  coefficients  of  digestibility,  usually  between  75  and 
90  per  cent.  Proteins  of  the  non-nitrogenous  concentrates, 
as  corn,  oats,  and  wheat,  are  usually  from  60  to  80  per  cent 
digestible.  Proteins  of  the  concentrates  which  are  relatively 
high  in  crude  fiber,  as  corn-and-cob  meal  and  the  brans, 
have  the  lowest  coefficients  of  digestibility  among  the  con- 
centrates, running  sometimes  as  low  as  50  per  cent. 

Of  the  roughages,  the  proteins  of  the  leguminous  hays,  as 
alfalfa,  clover,  and  cowpeas,  have  the  highest  coefficients 
of  digestibihty,  —  60  to  75  per  cent,  being  as  high  or  higher 
than  some  of  the  concentrates.  The  proteins  of  the  straws 
have  the  lowest  coefficients  of  digestibihty,  —  23  to  33  per 
cent. 

In  general,  the  digestibility  of  crude  protein  seems  to 
increase  \\ith  the  amount  of  protein  in  the  feed  and  to 
decrease  with  the  amount  of  crude  fiber. 

Digestibility  of  Nitrogen-free  Extract.  —  Generally  speak- 
ing, nitrogen-free  extract  is  the  most  digestible  nutrient,  due 
to  the  fact  tliat  the  starches  and  sugars  are  quite  easily 
and  quite  thoroughly  digested.  As  a  rule,  the  nitrogen-free 
extract  of  the  concentrates  is  more  digestible  than  that  of 


THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS  65 

the  roughages.  The  cHgestibihty  of  the  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract of  the  cereals  and  their  by-products  is  especially  high, 
—  usually  from  80  to  93  per  cent,  due  to  the  large  amount  of 
starch  which  they  contain. 

The  nitrogen-free  extract  of  the  roughages  is  less  digestible, 
owing  to  the  smaller  amount  of  starch  and  larger  quantity 
of  less  digestible  carbohydrates,  such  as  pentosans,  which  it 
contains.  The  coefficients  of  digestibility  of  the  nitrogen- 
free  extract  of  the  roughages  are  usually  from  40  to  70  per 
cent. 

In  general,  the  digestibility  of  nitrogen-free  extract  in- 
creases with  the  amount  of  starch  which  it  contains,  and 
decreases  with  the  amount  of  crude  fiber  in  the  feed. 

Digestibility  of  Crude  Fiber.  —  The  determination  of  the 
digestibihty  of  crude  fiber,  owing  to  errors  in  the  method  of 
analysis,  is  only  approximate  at  best.  In  many  digestion 
experiments  the  digestibility  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
and  crude  fiber  are  not  determined  separately  but  are  deter- 
mined together  as  '^  carbohydrates." 

Unhke  the  other  nutrients,  the  crude  fiber  of  the  roughages 
is  usually  more  digestible  than  the  crude  fiber  of  the  con- 
centrates. Thus  the  coefficients  of  digestibility  of  the  con- 
centrates are  usually  between  30  and  60  per  cent,  while 
those  of  the  roughages  are  between  45  and  65  per  cent.  The 
crude  fiber  of  corn  fodder  and  the  hays  is  usually  more 
digestible  than  the  crude  fiber  from  the  straws.  This  is 
due  probably  to  the  latter  containing  a  larger  amount  of 
coarse,  woody  material.  Also,  the  crude  fiber  of  early  cut 
hay  is  more  digestible  than  that  of  late  cut  hay.  Thus  the 
crude  fiber  of  timothy  hay  cut  when  in  bloom  had  a  coefficient 
of  digestibility  of  57  per  cent  while  timothy  hay  cut  after 


66  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

the  bloom  had  a  coefficient  of  43  per  cent.  In  general,  the 
older  and  tougher  the  plant  the  less  digestible  is  the  crude 
fiber. 

Digestibility  of  Fat.  —  Owing  to  the  inaccurate  methods 
of  analysis,  the  determinations  of  the  digestibihty  of  fat 
usually  are  less  exact  than  those  of  any  of  the  other  nutrients 
excepting  mineral  matter. 

The  digestibihty  of  the  fat  of  the  concentrates  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  roughages.  Of  the  concentrates,  the  fats 
from  packinghouse  by-products,  oil  by-products,  cereal  by- 
products, and  oil-bearing  seeds  have  the  highest  coefficients 
of  digestibihty,  in  most  cases  being  from  80  to  98  per  cent. 
The  fats  of  the  other  concentrates  are  usually  from  65  to  90 
per  cent  digestible. 

In  the  roughages,  the  fats  of  com  fodder  and  stover  have 
the  highest  coefficients  of  digestibility,  —  67  to  74  per  cent. 
The  straws  are  lowest,  —  30  to  39  per  cent. 

In  general,  the  digestibihty  of  fat  increases  with  the 
amount  of  fat  in  the  feed,  and  decreases  with  the  amount 
of  crude  fiber. 

FACTORS   AFFECTING    DIGESTIBILITY 

There  are  certain  factors  which  may  affect  the  digestibihty 
of  feedingstuffs,  either  favorably  or  unfavorably.  Also, 
there  are  certain  factors  which  sometimes  are  said  to  affect 
the  digestibihty  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  have  no  influence 
whatever.  Obviously  a  knowledge  of  these  factors  and  their 
influence,  if  any,  upon  the  digestibihty  is  of  considerable 
practical  importance. 

Species  of  Animal.  —  The  species  of  animal  may  have 
considerable  influence  upon  the  digestibihty  of  a  feeding- 


THE   DIGESTIBILITY   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS  67 

stuff.  As  a  rule,  cattle  digest  the  straws  and  coarse  hays 
better  than  sheep,  but  with  hays  of  good  quahty  there  is 
no  difference.  Cattle  and  sheep  digest  roughages  more 
completely  than  does  the  horse,  while  the  latter  digests 
them  much  more  thoroughly  than  the  hog.  The  reason 
for  this  Hes  in  the  special  provisions  in  the  digestive  tracts 
of  ruminants  and  horses  for  the  handUng  of  roughage. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  four  classes  of  farm  animals  digest 
concentrates  equally  well. 

Breed  of  Animal.  —  Different  breeds  of  the  same  species 
of  animal  possess  an  equal  digestive  power.  Thus  Armsby 
and  Fries  ^  found  that  a  pur^-bred  Angus  steer  and  a  scrub 
steer  of  predominant  dairy  typ^,  digested  the  same  ration 
equally  well. 

Age  of  Animal.  —  Within  reasonable  hmits  the  age  of  the 
animal  does  not  influence  the  digestibihty  of  the  ration.  Very 
young  animals  mthout  teeth  and  very  old  animals  with 
defective  teeth  of  course  would  not  be  able  to  digest  certain 
rations  very  thoroughly.  Also  until  the  rumen  or  paunch 
of  the  young  ruminants  is  fully  developed,  the  coarser  part 
of  the  ration  will  not  be  digested  thoroughly.  Armsby  and 
Fries  ^  in  experiments  with  two  steers  found  but  Httle 
difference  in  their  digestibihty  as  yearlings,  as  two-year-olds, 
and  as  three-year-olds. 

The  condition  of  the  animal  has  no  effect  upon  its  power 
of  digestion.  In  the  experiment  by  Armsby  and  Fries, 
already  quoted,  it  was  found  that  a  eer  in  good  condition 
and  one  in  poor  condition  digested  the  same  ration  equally 
well. 

Work  by  the  Animal.  —  It  often  has  been  assumed  that  a 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Buteav  of  Amin.  Indus.  Bui.  128.  2  {Ihid.) 


68  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

keen  appetite,  resulting  from  hard  work,  enables  an  animal 
to  make  greater  use  of  the  feed  provided.  Within  reason- 
able limits,  however,  work  has  no  effect  upon  the  digestibihty. 
However,  it  has  been  found  that  very  hard  work  decreases 
the  digestibility.  Also  it  was  found  that  horses  working  at 
a  quick  trot  did  not  digest  their  rations  as  well  as  when  work- 
ing at  a  walk  or  when  resting. 

The  individuality  of  the  animal  may  have  considerable 
effect  upon  the  digestibility  of  the  ration.  In  other  words, 
animals  kept  under  the  same  conditions  and  fed  the  same 
ration  may  have  different  powers  of  digestibihty.  Thus 
at  the  Ilhnois  Experiment  Station,^  Grindley,  Carmichael 
and  Newlin  conducted  forty  digestion  experiments,  each  of 
ten  days'  duration,  on  four  pigs.  All  conditions  of  the 
experiments  were  practically  the  same.  The  pigs  were 
litter  mates  and  had  been  fed  together  from  birth.  It  was 
found  that  some  of  the  coefficients  of  digestibihty  of  certain 
pigs  were  uniformly  higher  than  those  of  other  pigs  on  the 
same  ration.  This  difference  sometimes  amounted  to  as 
much  as  five  per  cent. 

Palatability  of  the  Ration.  —  Increased  palatabihty  of  the 
ration  probably  has  a  sUght  beneficial  effect  upon  the  digest- 
ibility. The  secretion  of  the  digestive  juices  is  partly  under 
the  control  of  the  nervous  system ;  thus,  Pawlow,  a  great 
Russian  physiologist,  found  that  the  smell  or  taste  of  food 
stimulates  the  nervous  system  and  causes  a  flow  of  the  diges- 
tive juices,  which  would  tend  to  increase  the  thoroughness  of 
digestion.  The  experienced  feeder  knows  well  the  value  of 
stimulating  the  appetites  of  his  animals  by  means  of  attrac- 
tive mixtures.     Too  much  stress  should  not  be  placed  upon 

1  Unpublished  data. 


THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS  69 

the  effect  of  palatability,  however,  as  the  increase  in  digest- 
ibility is  probably  small  at  best. 

Cooking  of  Feeds.  —  Formerly,  much  labor  and  money 
was  expended  by  farmers  in  steaming  and  cooking  feeds. 
It  has  been  found,  however,  that  these  processes  do  not 
increase  the  digestibility,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  usually 
decrease  it.  Cooking  decreases  the  digestibihty  of  the  pro- 
tein especially.  Potatoes  and  other  starchy  tubers  are  an 
exception  to  the  rule,  as  their  digestibihty  is  increased  by 
cooking.  At  the  Oregon  Experiment  Station,^  Withycombe 
and  Bradley  found  that  the  steaming  of  vetch  and  of 
corn  silage  decreased  considerably  the  digestibihty  of  the 
ration. 

Sweating  and  fermenting  of  feeds  usually  decrease  the 
digestibihty.  On  the  other  hand,  the  palatability  of  some 
feeds  may  be  increased  by  such  treatment  and  thereby  make 
possible  the  consumption  of  material  which  otherwise 
would  not  be  eaten  at  all.  Thus  while  corn  silage  is  not  as 
thoroughly  digested  as  corn  fodder,  it  is  more  valuable  as  a 
feed  because  of  its  palatable  and  succulent  nature.  Brown 
hay  shows  an  increased  digestibihty  of  crude  fiber  but  de- 
creased digestibihty  of  protein  and  nitrogen-free  extract. 

Soaking  of  Feeds.  —  In  the  case  of  very  hard,  flinty  corn, 
soaking  for  several  hours  previous  to  feeding  may  increase 
its  digestibihty,  especially  if  the  animals  to  which  it  is  fed 
are  old  and  have  defective  teeth. 

Grinding  of  Feeds.  —  Grinding  of  the  feed  probably  in- 
creases the  digestibihty  to  a  certain  extent.  Jordan  ^  states 
that  in  expcM-iments  with  horses,  grinding  increased  the 
digestibihty  of  corn  and  oats  3  to  14  per  cent,  of  corn  alone 

1  Bui.  102.  2  "  The  Feeding  of  Animals,"  p.  133. 


70  rRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

7  per  cent,  and  of  wheat  10  per  cent.  In  a  test  with  sheep 
unground  oats  were  digested  as  completely  as  ground  oats. 
On  the  other  hand,  Evvard,^  at  the  low^a  Station,  found  that 
60-pound  pigs  digested  ear  corn,  shelled  corn,  and  ground 
corn  equally  w^ell.  In  case  of  200-pound  hogs  there  was  a 
very  shght  difference  in  favor  of  grinding  or  grinding  and 
soaking.  In  general,  however,  it  is  not  advisable  from  an 
economic  standpoint  to  grind  corn  and  oats  if  the  cost  of 
grinding  amounts  to  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  value  of 
the  feed.  In  the  case  of  fattening  cattle  which  are  followed 
by  hogs,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  is  ever  profitable  to  grind  the  corn. 
Grain  never  should  be  ground  for  sheep  except  in  the  case  of 
young  lambs.  In  the  case  of  animals  with  defective  teeth, 
very  young  animals,  horses  at  hard  work,  and  dairy  cows, 
it  may  be  advantageous  to  grind  the  feed,  providing  the  cost 
of  grinding  is  not  too  great.  Wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  emmer 
should  be  ground,  crushed,  or  rolled  for  all  animals  except 
sheep. 

Frequency  of  Feeding  and  Watering.  —  Within  reason- 
able hmits,  the  frequency  of  feeding  has  no  effect  upon 
digestibiUty.     The  same  is  true  of  the  frequency  of  watering. 

Patent  Stock  Foods.  —  The  advertisements  of  most 
patent  or  proprietary  stock  foods  ''  guarantee  "  that  their 
use  will  cause  the  animal  to  digest  considerably  more  of  its 
ration  and  derive  much  more  benefit  therefrom.  Inasmuch 
as  patent  stock  foods  usually  consist  of  a  mixture  of  common 
feedingstuffs,  as  bran,  oil  meal,  ground  oat  hulls,  and  ground 
chaff,  with  a  small  quantity  of  salt  and  drugs,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how  this  can  be  so. 

Michael  and  Kennedy,  at  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station,^ 

1  Unpublished  data.  2  gui.  113. 


THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS  71 

found  that  patent  stock  foods  when  fed  with  corn  to  hogs  did 
not  increase  the  digestibihty  of  the  ration.  The  hogs  did 
not  derive  more  benefit  from  their  ration  but,  on  the 
contrary,  they  required  more  feed  to  produce  a  pound 
of  gain  when  stock  foods  were  used  than  when  corn  was 
fed  alone. 

Snyder  and  Hummel,  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station,^  in  feeding  a  ration  of  corn  and  alfalfa  hay  to  steers, 
found  that  the  addition  of  a  patent  stock  food  materially 
decreased  the  digestibihty  of  the  dry  matter,  crude  protein, 
crude  fiber,  and  fat  of  the  ration. 

Patent  stock  foods,  in  some  cases,  may  have  a  medicinal 
value  but,  if  an  animal  needs  medicine,  usually  it  will  be 
found  to  be  better  pohcy  to  call  in  a  trained  veterinarian. 

Salt,  although  valuable  and  even  necessary  to  the  animal, 
does  not  increase  the  digestibility  of  the  feed.  In  fact, 
large  quantities  of  salt  may  decrease  the  digestibility  by 
hindering  the  action  of  the  digestive  enzymes. 

Stage  of  Growth  of  the  Plant.  —  In  general,  as  plants 
mature  the  relative  proportion  of  crude  fiber  in  the  stems  and 
leaves  increases  and  the  plant  tissues  become  harder  and 
tougher,  and,  consequently,  the  stems  and  leaves  become 
less  digestible.  On  the  other  hand,  the  proportion  of 
nitrogen-free  extract,  i.e.  the  starches  and  sugars  in  the 
grain  or  seeds,  increases,  and  hence  the  total  amount  of 
nutriment  in  the  grain  and  seeds  increases  with  approaching 
maturity.  Thus,  in  order  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of 
nutrients,  such  plants  as  clover  and  timothy,  which  are 
grown  primarily  for  the  stems  and  leaves,  should  be  harvested 
before  the  ripening  of  their  seeds ;  while  such  plants  as  corn, 

>  Bui.  80. 


72  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

oats,  and  wheat,  whicli  are  grown  primarily  for  their  yecd8, 
should  be  allowed  to  mature  before  harvesting. 

Curing  and  Storage  of  Feeds.  —  The  euring  of  feeds,  if 
properly  done,  has  no  effect  upon  their  digestibihty.  If 
improperly  done,  it  may  decrease  the  digestibilit}-.  Thus, 
exposure  to  rains  leaches  out  a  large  part  of  the  soluble  and 
more  digestible  matter  of  the  feed.  Also,  the  digestibihty 
of  hay  may  be  decreased  by  the  loss  of  the  leaves,  which 
are  the  most  digestible  part  of  the  roughages.  Heating 
of  hay  in  the  mow  or  stack  materially  decreases  the 
digestibihty,  as  the  more  digestible  portions  of  the  plant 
are  most  subject  to  fermentation.  The  digestibihty  of 
hay  may  be  decreased  slightly  by  storage  from  one  year 
to  the  next. 

Amounts  of  Feed.  —  In  recent  investigations  ^\^th  cattle 
at  the  Ilhnois  Experiment  Station,^  by  Mumford,  Grindley, 
Hall,  Emmett,  Joseph,  and  Allison,  it  was  found  that  when  a 
large  proportion  of  concentrates  to  roughage  was  fed  (5 
parts  of  the  former  to  1  part  of  the  latter),  the  amount  of 
feed  consumed  had  little  or  no  influence  upon  the  digestibility 
of  the  ration.  However,  when  the  proportion  of  concentrates 
in  the  ration  was  smaller  (3  parts  of  concentrates  to  1  part 
of  roughage,  and  1  part  of  concentrates  to  1  part  of  roughage), 
the  digestibility^  of  the  ration  varied  inversely  with  the  amount 
of  feed  consumed.  Maintenance  rations  were  digested  most 
thoroughly,  ^-ith  one-third  feed,  two-thirds  feed,  and  full- 
feed  rations  ranking  in  the  order  named.  Thus  the  coef- 
ficients of  digestibihty  of  the  dry  substance  for  the  different 
lots  were  as  follows : 

>  Bui.  172. 


THE  DIGESTIBILITY   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS 


73 


Ration 


Hay,  1  part ;  corn,  1  part  . 
Hay,  1  part ;  corn,  3  parts 
Hay,  1  part ;  corn,  5  parts 
Hay,  1  part ;    corn,  4  parts 
linseed  meal,  1  part .     . 


Mainte- 
nance Lot 


69.3 

77.7 
78.7 

79.6 


One-third 
Feed  Lot 


65.9 
71.9 

75.8 

76.9 


Two- 
thirds 
Feed  Lot 


63.8 
68.8 
73.6 

75.04 


Full- 
feed 
Lot 


62.5 
64.7 
69.7 

76.0 


These  differences  in  the  digestibiUty  of  the  dry  substance 
were  due  to  differences  in  the  digestibility  of  the  carbohy- 
drates. The  protein  and  fat  were  digested  equally  well  by 
the  different  lots. 

Also,  in  experiments  with  cattle  at  the  Mockern  (Ger- 
many) Experiment  Station,  in  experiments  with  cattle  by 
Eckles  at  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station,^  and  in  experi- 
ments with  sheep  by  Jordan  and  Jenter  at  the  New  York 
(Geneva)  Experiment  Station,^  it  was  found  that  the  digesti- 
bility decreased  as  the  amount  of  the  ration  was  increased. 

Excess  of  Non-nitrogenous  Nutrients.  —  If  the  ration 
contains  an  excess  of  carbohydrates  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  protein,  the  digestibiUty,  especially  of  the  pro- 
tein, will  be  decreased  considerably.  Kellner  ^  states  that 
this  depression  is  liable  to  occur  in  ruminants  if  the  ration 
contains  more  than  8  to  10  parts  of  digestible  carbohydrates 
and  fats  to  each  part  of  digestible  protein.  In  case  of  pigs, 
he  places  the  hmit  as  12  parts  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and 
fats  to  each  part  of  digestible  protein.  If  the  proportion  of 
carbohydrates  and  fats  is  in  excess  of  these  figtires,  he  states 
that  the  ration  will  be  less  digestil)le. 


1  Research  Bui.  4  and  7. 

3  "  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals, 


2  Bui.  141. 
p.  39. 


74 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


Addition  of  Nitrogenous  Nutrients.  —  The  increase  of  the 
protein  in  a  ration  causes  not  only  no  depression  of  digesti- 
bility but,  as  just  stated,  it  may  increase  the  digestibility  of 
the  carbohydrates  if  there  is  an  excess  of  them  in  the  ration. 
Moreover,  it  seems  from  experiments  at  the  Ilhnois  Experiment 
Station  that  the  addition  of  protein  increases  the  digestibility 
of  the  entire  ration.  In  an  experiment  by  Mumford,  Grind- 
ley,  Hall,  Emmett,  Joseph,  and  AUison,^  eight  steers  were 
fed  a  ration  consisting  of  hay  1  part,  and  corn  5  parts. 
Then  one  part  of  the  corn  was  removed  and  an  equal  amount 
of  linseed  meal  (a  feed  containing  about  34  per  cent  of  pro- 
tein) was  substituted  for  it.  The  average  coefficients  of 
digestibility  upon  these  two  rations  were  as  follows : 


Ration 

Dry  Sub- 
stance 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Hay,  1  part ;  corn,  5  parts 
Hay,  1  part ;  corn,  4  parts  ; 
linseed  meal,  1  part    .     . 

74.5 

76.9 

51.3 

67.7 

78.3 
79.9 

79.3 
83.5 

The  same  thing,  though  in  less  degree,  is  indicated  by  ex- 
periments with  hogs  at  the  Ilhnois  Station  ^  by  Dietrich 
and  Grindley. 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  Feedingstufifs.  —  The  practical 
stock  feeder  is  not  especially  interested  in  the  coefficients  of 
digestibihty  of  feedingstuffs  nor  in  the  chemical  composition 
of  feedingstuffs,  provided  he  knows  their  content  of  digestible 
nutrients.  Knowing  the  chemical  composition  of  a  feed  and 
knowing  its  coefficients  of  digestibility,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to 
calculate  the  amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  in  the  feed. 
1  lU.  Agr.  Exp,  Sta.  Bui.  172.  2  BuI.  170. 


THE  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS  75 

The  percentage  of  each  nutrient  in  the  feed,  multipUed  by 
the  corresponding  coefficient  of  digestibihty,  and  the  result 
divided  by  100,  gives  the  percentage  of  each  digestible  nu- 
trient in  the  feed.  If  the  corn  in  the  example  cited  on  page 
58  contained  9.80  per  cent  of  crude  protein,  82.08  per  cent 
of  which  was  digestible,  the  percentage  of  digestible  crude 
protein  in  the  corn  would  be  9.80  times  82.08  divided  by 
100,  or  8.04.  In  other  words,  100  pounds  of  the  corn  con- 
tained 8.04  pounds  of  digestible  crude  protein.  The  per- 
centage of  the  other  digestible  nutrients  of  the  corn  may  be 
obtained  in  similar  manner.  In  the  formation  of  rations, 
it  is  the  percentage  of  digestible  nutrients  which  are  in  the 
feeds,  rather  than  the  percentage  of  total  nutrients  which 
must  be  considered.  The  average  content  of  digestible 
nutrients  in  feedingstuffs  for  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  is 
given  in  Table  29,  of  the  Appendix.  Inasmuch  as  hogs  do 
not  digest  their  feeds  the  same  as  the  other  farm  animals. 
Table  30,  giving  the  average  content  of  digestible  nutrients 
in  feedingstuffs  for  hogs,  is  given. 


CHAPTER  V 

FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  FEED  NUTRIENTS  IN  THE 
ANIMAL  BODY 

In  describing  the  digestion  and  absorption  of  the  feed 
nutrients  thus  far,  we  have  not  found  them  to  be  of  any  nu- 
tritive value  to  the  animal  body.  However,  after  digestion 
and  absorption,  the  nutrients  are  ready  for  distribution  by 
the  blood  for  the  utiUzation  of  the  different  tissues  of  the 
body  for  various  purposes. 

Metabolism.  —  The  sum  of  all  the  changes  which  the 
absorbed  food  undergoes  in  the  body  is  known  as  me- 
tabolism. The  term  meta])olism  includes  all  the  changes 
and  transformations  which  the  digested  nutrients  undergo 
from  the  time  they  are  absorbed  until  they  are  finally  excreted 
from  the  body.  It  covers  all  the  chemical  changes  in  the 
animal  body  which  constitute  the  hfe  of  the  animal.  Thus, 
the  repair  of  body  tissue,  growth,  the  storage  of  fat,  and  the 
production  of  milk  are  all  included  in  the  processes  of  me- 
taboUsm.  On  the  other  hand,  the  breaking  down  of  the  pro- 
tein tissues  and  the  oxidation  of  fat  and  carbohydrates  for 
the  hberation  of  their  energy  are  also  included  in  the  meta- 
bolic processes.  Thus  the  functions  of  the  digested  and  ab- 
sorbed nutrients  of  the  feed  are  all  included  under  the  term, 
metabolism. 

In  general,  animals  use  food  in  three  ways:  (1)  for  the 
formation,  growth,  and  repair  of  the  muscles,  bones,  ten- 

76 


FEED  NUTRIENTS  IN    THE  ANIMAL   BODY  11 

dons,  skin,  hair,  hoof,  horn,  and  of  the  various  organs, 
mem])ranes,  and  secretions ;  (2)  as  fuel  for  the  hberation  of 
energy  to  produce  work  or  heat ;  (3)  for  the  formation  of 
body  fat ;    and  (4)  for  the  formation  of  body  glycogen. 

Functions  of  Water.  —  The  importance  of  water  to  the 
animal  organism  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  ordinarily  from 
one-third  to  two-thirds  of  the  weight  of  the  animal  body 
consists  of  water.  Water  is  necessary  to  the  life  of  every 
cell.  It  acts  as  a  solvent  for  various  substances,  it  is  a 
carrier  of  nourishment  to  the  cells,  and  it  removes  waste 
products  away  from  the  cells.  It  often  assists  in  cooling 
the  body  by  evaporation  from  the  skin  as  perspiration.  It 
is  necessary  also  for  many  important  chemical  reactions 
which  take  place  in  the  animal  body.  Water  ordinarily  is 
excreted  from  the  body,  principally  in  the  urine,  and  to  a 
slight  extent  in  the  perspiration,  feces,  and  water  vapor 
from  the  lungs. 

Functions  of  Mineral  Matter.  —  It  was  noted  under  the 
discussion  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the  animal  body 
that  from  3  to  6  per  cent  of  the  body  is  composed  of  mineral 
matter.  The  skeleton,  especially,  the  protein  tissues,  the 
blood,  and  the  body  fluids  all  contain  a  certain  amount  of 
mineral  matter. 

Thus,  the  mineral  matter  of  the  feed  is  used  for  the  forma- 
tion and  repair  of  the  bones,  the  protein  tissues,  and  the  body 
fluids,  such  as  the  blood,  the  milk,  and  the  digestive  fluids. 
The  mineral  matter  is  also  used  to  maintain  the  neutraUty, 
alkalinity,  or  acidity,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  the  fluids  and 
tissues  of  the  body.  It  has  no  value  for  the  production  of 
fat  or  for  the  liberation  of  energy.  Mineral  matter  is  ex- 
creted from  the  body  in  the  feces,  urine,  and,  to  a  sHght 


78  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

extent,  in  the  perspiration.  In  case  of  the  herbivora,  cal- 
cium and  phosphorus  are  excreted  almost  entirely  in  the 
feces,  while  potassium  is  excreted  in  both  the  feces  and 
urine.  Mineral  matter  in  the  ration  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  the  animal.  Young  animals  fail  to  develop  properly,  or 
even  may  die  if  given  an  insufficient  supply  of  mineral 
matter.  If  a  mature  animal  is  deprived  of  even  common 
salt,  it  becomes  weak,  languid,  and  finally  dies.     When  the 


Fifi.   13.  —  These  pigs  were  fed  a  ration  deficient  in  phosphoric 
(Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.) 


ration  is  deficient  in  mineral  matter,  the  mineral  matter  of 
the  bones  is  used  to  supply  the  deficiency  for  a  time. 

Ordinarily,  the  rations  of  our  farm  animals  are  not  defi- 
cient in  mineral  matter,  with  the  exception  of  salt,  which 
usually  must  be  added  to  all  rations.  The  mineral  matter 
in  most  feeds  is  sufficient,  and  those  feeds  which  are  low  in 
mineral  matter  are  fed  usually  in  combination  with  other 
feeds  which  make  up  the  deficiency.  An  exception  to  this 
statement  is  corn,  a  feed  deficient  in  calcium,  especially, 
and  in  phosphorus,  to  a  certain  extent,  which  often  is  fed 
to  hogs  without  any  supplement,  or  with   supplementary 


FEED    NUTRIENTS  IN    THE   ANIMAL   BODY 


79 


feeds  which  also  are  deficient  in  calcium,  such  as  middhngs, 
shorts,  and  red  dog  flour.  Thus,  when  fed  to  immature 
pigs,  corn  should  be  supplemented  by  mineral  matter  in  the 
form  of  rock  phosphate,  ashes,  charcoal,  salt,  air-slacked 
lime,  and  bone  meal,  which  may  be  kept  in  a  trough  or  self- 
feeder  where  they  are  accessible  to  the  pigs  at  all  times.     For 


Fig.  14.  —  These  pigs  were  fed  the  same  ration  as  those  in  Figure  13, 
with  the  addition  of  phosphorus  in  the  form  of  calcium  phosphate.  (Wis- 
consin Experiment  Station.) 


other  reasons,  which  will  ])e  discussed  later,  corn  should  be 
fed  to  growing  pigs  in  combination  with  such  feeds  as  milk, 
tankage,  or  alfalfa,  clover,  or  blue  grass  pasture.  Figure  13 
shows  pigs  whose  rations  were  deficient  in  phosphorus. 
Figure  14  shows  pigs  fed  the  same  ration  as  those  in  Figure 
13,  but  with  the  addition  of  phosphorus  in  the  form  of  cal- 
cium phosphate.  Figure  15  shows  bones  from  hogs  which 
received  a  ration  low  in  calcium.     Apparently  the  bones 


80  PRINCirLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

were  l^rokeii  and  then  healed  again.  Also  the  ration  of 
growing  colts  fed  on  corn  and  timothy  hay  is  liable  to  be 
deficient  in  calcium.     Sometimes  the  ration  of  the  dairv  cow 


I'KJ.  15.  —  Abnormal  bones  from  hogs  whose  rations  were  low  in  cac  m 
(corn  alone,  and  corn  and  soy  beans).  The  bones  seem  to  have  l/oc.i 
broken  and  to  have  healed  again.      (Ohio  Experiment  Station.) 

is  deficient  in  mineral  matter,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of 
it  required  for  milk  production. 

Functions  of  Crude  Protein.  —  The  functions  of  the 
proteins  of  the  ration  are  as  follows:  (1)  they  serve  as 
material  for  the  repair  and  growth  of  the  proteins  of  the 
tissues  and  fluids  of  th(^  body,  for  foetal  development  in 
the  i^regnant  animal,  and  for  milk  production  in  the  milk- 
producing  animal ;  (2)  they  may  serve  as  a  source  of  energy ; 


FEED   NUTRIENTS   IN   THE   ANIMAL   BODY  81 

(3)  they  may  serve  as  a  source  of  body  fat ;  and  (4)  they 
may  serve  as  a  source  of  ])ody  glycogen. 

The  protein  tissues  of  the  body,  especially  the  more  active 
ones,  are  continually  being  broken  down  or  worn  out  and 
must  be  repaired  in  order  to  maintain  the  life  of  the  animal. 
It  was  stated  that  in  digestion,  the  proteins  are  split  up  into 
the  simple  amino  acids  of  which  they  are  composed  and  are 
absorbed  in  this  form.  The  absorbed  amino  acids  are  carried 
by  the  blood  to  the  various  protein  tissues  of  the  body,  such 
as  the  muscular  tissue,  the  connective  tissue,  etc.  Inasmuch 
as  all  proteins  are  not  composed  of  the  same  amino  acids, 
each  tissue  probably  selects  from  the  blood  only  those  amino 
acids  which  can  be  used  for  its  repair. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  growth  consists  largely 
of  an  increase  of  the  protein  tissues  of  the  body.  Thus  the 
tissues  take  up  from  the  blood  those  amino  acids  which 
may  be  used  for  growth  and  build  them  up  into  the  tissue 
proteins.  Also  they  may  be  used  for  foetal  development 
or  milk  production.  If  there  is  any  surplus  of  amino  acids 
in  the  blood  above  the  needs  of  the  protein  tissues  for  repair 
and  growth,  it  may  be  oxidized  for  the  liberation  of  energy. 
The  principal  end  products  of  the  oxidation  of  the  amino 
acids  are  water,  carbon  dioxide,  urea,  ammonia,  and  uric 
acid.  The  carbon  dioxide  is  excreted  largely  through  the 
lungs,  and  the  other  products  are  excreted  through  the 
urine,  mainly,  and  through  the  perspiration,  to  a  slight 
extent. 

Any  surplus  of  amino  acids  above  the  demands  of  the  body 
for  repair  and  growth  which  is  not  used  for  fuel  purposes 
probably  may  be  converted  into  fat  and  glycogen  and  stored 
as  such  in  the  body,  although  this  has  never  been  proven 


82  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

definitely.  According  to  Kellner/  one  hundred  pounds  of 
digestible  protein  in  the  feed  above  the  requirements  of  the 
body  for  repair  and  growth  produces  23.5  pounds  of  body  fat. 

As  in  the  case  of  mineral  matter,  a  certain  amount  of  pro- 
tein is  absolutely  essential  not  only  for  the  satisfactory 
development  of  the  animal  but  for  life  itself.  An  animal 
fed  on  a  protein-free  ration  will  soon  starve  to  death,  while 
an  animal  receiving  an  insufficient  amount  will  not  make 
a  satisfactory  development. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  certain  amino  acids  are 
absolutely  essential  to  life,  while  a  certain  amino  acid  is 
essential  only  to  growth.  Thus  not  only  must  the  ration 
contain  a  sufficient  amount  of  protein,  but  the  protein 
must  contain  those  amino  acids  which  are  essential  for 
the  maintenance  and  growth  of  the  body  tissues.  It  has 
already  been  shown  that  the  proteins  may  differ  greatly 
in  their  content  of  the  different  amino  acids  and,  conse- 
quently, that  they  may  differ  in  nutritive  value.  Thus, 
if  a  protein  like  zein  of  corn  which  is  lacking  in  essential 
amino  acids  is  fed,  it  cannot  be  used  for  repair  or  growth 
unless  the  missing  amino  acids  are  supplied  in  some  other 
protein.  In  an  experiment  with  a  man,^  it  has  been  found 
that  the  foUo^ving  proteins  ranked  in  the  order  named : 
meat,  milk,  rice,  potato,  bean,  bread,  and  corn.  In  recent 
experiments  by  McCollum  with  pigs  at  the  Wisconsin 
Station,^  the  following  proteins  ranked  in  the  order  named : 
skim  milk,  casein,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  linseed  meal,  wheat 
embryo.     Thus,  when  feeds  are  used  whose  proteins  contain 

1  "The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals,"  p.  04. 

2  Lusk,  "  Basis  of  Nutrition,"  p.  20. 

3  Jour,  of  Biol.  Chem.  XIX,  1914,  p.  323. 


FEED   NUTRIENTS  IN   THE  ANIMAL   BODY  83 

only  a  small  amount  of  certain  of  the  essential  amino  acids, 
larger  amounts  of  feed  must  be  fed  in  order  to  supply  these 
acids,  or  they  must  be  added  to  the  ration  by  the  use  of  a 
supplementary  feed  which  contains  them. 

Zein,  the  protein  which  makes  up  more  than  half  the  crude 
protein  of  corn,  is  entirely  lacking  in  three  amino  acids,  one 
of  which  is  essential  to  life,  and  another  of  which  is  essential 


1^ 


Fig.  16.  —  The  ration  of  these  pigs  was  deficient  in  the  amount  and 
quality  of  protein.  Another  pig  of  this  lot  died  before  this  photograph  was 
taken.  The  "  runt "  died  the  day  after  this  photograph  was  taken. 
(Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 

to  growth.  Thus  corn,  when  fed  alone,  as  is  often  done  in 
case  of  hogs,  does  not  furnish  enough  of  these  two  essential 
amino  acids  to  satisfactorily  fulfill  the  requirements  of  the 
animal.  In  experiments  at  the  Ilhnois  Experiment  Station,^ 
by  Emmett,  Grindley,  Joseph,  and  Williams,  pigs  fed 
corn,  a  small  amount  of  blood-meal,  and  mineral  matter 
were  stunted  in  their  growth,  had  weak,  hght  bones,  lost 

1  Bui.  168. 


84 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


their  ajjpctites,  became  weak,  languid,  stiff  in  their  hind 
quarters,  and,  in  several  cases,  died..  Figure  16  shows  tlie 
low  protein  lot  of  pigs  of  this  experiment.  The  smaller  pig 
died  the  day  after  the  photograph  was  taken  and  another 
pig  of  this  lot  died  before  the  photograph  was  taken.     On 


Fig.  17. — The  ration  of  these  pigs  was  the  .same  as  that  of  the  pigs 
shown  in  Figure  16  with  the  addition  of  sufficient  protein  of  the  proper 
quality.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 


tlie  other  hand,  pigs  fed  a  liberal  amount  of  blood-meal  in 
addition  to  corn  and  mineral  matter  made  a  normal  growth. 
Figure  17  shows  another  lot  of  this  experiment  which  re- 
ceived a  sufficient  amount  of  blood-meal  to  remedy  the  de- 
fects of  the  corn  protein.  Figure  18  shows  cross-sections  of 
some  of  the  ])ones  of  a  few  of  the  pigs  of  this  experiment. 
Note  that  the  bones  of  the  medium  and  high  protein  lots 


J  ^ 


85 


86 


PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


have  thicker  walls  than  those  of  the  low  protein  lot.  Figure 
19  shows  a  lot  of  pigs  at  the  beginning  of  an  experiment  in 
which  they  were  fed  corn  and  mineral  matter.  Figure  20 
shows  the  same  pigs  after  196  days  on  this  ration.  Thus, 
when  fed  to  hogs,  and  especially  to  grooving  pigs,  corn  should 
be  supplemented  not  only  by  mineral  matter  but  also  by 


Fig.    19.  —  Pigs  at  the  begiuuing  of   a  196-day  feeding   period   upon  corn 
alone.     Average  weight,  39  pounds.     (Kentucky  Experiment  Station.) 


some  nitrogenous  feed,  as  tankage,  middUngs,  oil  meal, 
clover  or  alfalfa  pasture,  which  furnishes  the  essential 
amino  acids  in  which  corn  is  deficient.  To  the  other  classes 
of  farm  animals,  corn  often  is  fed  with  a  nitrogenous  rough- 
age as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  which,  to  a  large  extent  at  least, 
may  furnish  the  essential  amino  acids  in  which  the  corn  is 
deficient.  However,  when  corn  is  fed  to  growing  animals  with 
a  non-nitrogenous  roughage,  such  as  corn  silage  or  timothy 


FEED   NUTRIENTS  IN   THE  ANIMAL  BODY 


8< 


hay,  it  may  be  necessary  to  add  a  nitrogenous  concentrate,  as 
linseed  oil  meal  or  bran,  to  supply  the  deficient  amino  acids. 
Wheat  gliadin,  the  protein  which  makes  up  about  half  the 
crude  protein  of  wheat,  is  deficient  in  lysine,  an  amino 
acid  which  is  essential  to  growth.  Thus  in  experiments  by 
Hart  and  McCollum  at  the  Wisconsin  Station,^  wheat  and 
mineral  matter  cUd  not  produce  maximum  growth  in  pigs, 


Fig.  liU.  —  Tlie  same  piji.s  as  shown  in  Figure  19  after  196  days  of  feeding  corn 
alone.     Average  weight,  64  pounds.     (Kentucky  Experiment  Station.) 

while  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  casein  (which  con- 
tains all  the  essential  amino  acids)  caused  normal  growth. 
Gliadin  from  rye  and  the  protein,  hordein,  from  barley  also 
will  not  produce  maximum  growth. 

Functions  of  Carbohydrates.  —  The  functions  of  the  car- 
bohydrates of  the  feed,  i.e.  the  starches,  sugars,  celluloses, 
pentosans,  etc.,  are  as  follows:  (1)  to  serve  as  fuel  for  the 
Uberation  of  energy ;  (2)  to  serve  as  a  source  of  body  fat ; 
and  (3)  to  serve  as  a  source  of  glycogen  in  the  animal  body. 

»  Jour,  of  Biol.  Chem.  XIX,  1914,  p.  373. 


88  PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 

The  carbohydrates  in  the  ordinary  ration  of  the  corn- 
belt  serve  as  the  principal  source  of  energy  to  the  animal 
body.  True,  the  protein  and  fat  also  may  serve  the  same 
purpose  but,  as  the  former  is  more  expensive  and  the  latter 
not  so  plentiful,  the  carbohydrates  usually  furnish  the  larger 
part  of  the  fuel  for  the  animal  body. 

It  was  stated  that  the  starches  and  sugars  are  absorbed 
in  the  form  of  glucose  and  other  simple  sugars  very  similar 
to  glucose,  and  a  small  amount  of  organic  acids.  They  are 
carried  by  the  blood  to  the  hver  which  acts  as  a  storehouse 
and  regulator  to  the  supply  of  glucose  in  the  blood.  In  the 
hver,  glucose  is  changed  to  glycogen  or  animal  starch  and 
stored.  Then  as  needed,  the  glycogen  is  reconverted  to 
glucose,  which  passes  again  into  the  blood  and  is  carried  to 
the  tissues,  where  it  may  be  changed  back  into  glycogen  and 
temporarily  stored  before  it  is  oxidized,  or  it  may  be  oxidized 
directly  With  the  hberation  of  energy  and  the  formation  of 
carbon  dioxide,  which  is  excreted  through  the  lungs,  and 
water,  which  is  excreted  mainly  through  the  urine  and  to  a 
shght  extent  through  the  lungs  and  perspiration.  The  crude 
fiber  is  absorbed  in  the  form  of  salts  of  organic  acids,  which 
probably  are  oxidized  in  the  tissues  with  the  liberation  of 
energy  and  the  formation  of  carbon  dioxide  and  water. 

If  there  is  any  surplus  of  carbohydrates  above  the  needs  of 
the  body  for  energy,  it  may  be  converted  into  fat  and  stored 
in  the  body.  It  was  long  contended  that  carbohydrates  could 
not  serve  as  a  source  of  body  fat,  but  it  has  been  proven  that 
they  do  have  this  function.  In  fact,  the  carbohydrates,  owing 
to  the  high  cost  of  protein  and  the  scarcity  of  fat  in  ordinary 
rations,  are  the  most  important  source  of  body  fat  in  most 
feeding  operations.     This  is  true  especially  in  the  corn-belt. 


FEED    NUTRIENTS   IN    THE   ANIMAL   BODY  80 

The  different  kinds  of  carbohj^drates  have  different  values 
for  fat  production.  Thus  100  pounds  of  digestible  starch 
or  crude  fiber  fed  above  the  maintenance  requirement  of 
the  animal  may  produce  about  25  pounds  of  body  fat,  while 
the  same  amount  of  digestible  cane  sugar  may  produce  only 
19  pounds  of  fat.  According  to  Kellner/  protein  and  car- 
bohydrates have  about  the  same  values  as  fat  producers. 

Functions  of  Fat.  —  The  functions  of  the  fat  of  the  feed 
are:  (1)  to  serve  as  fuel  for  the  liberation  of  energy;  and 
(2)  to  serve  as  a  source  of  the  body  fat. 

The  absorbed  fat  is  carried  by  the  blood  to  the  muscular 
tissues,  where  it  may  be  oxidized  immediately  for  the  Ubera- 
tion  of  energy.  The  end  products  of  the  oxidation  are  car- 
bon dioxide  and  water.  The  carbon  dioxide  is  excreted 
mainly  through  the  lungs,  and  the  water  is  excreted  mainly 
through  the  urine. 

Any  excess  of  fat  above  the  needs  of  the  body  for  the  produc- 
tion of  energy  may  be  stored  in  the  cells  of  the  tissues  as  body 
fat.  The  body  fat  acts  as  a  reserve  food  supply  which  may 
be  called  upon  to  furnish  energy  to  the  animal  body  at  any 
time  when  the  ration  is  insufficient  to  supply  its  demands. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  digestible  fat  in  the  ration  above 
the  requirements  of  the  animal  for  maintenance  may  form 
from  47  to  60  pounds  of  body  fat.  In  general,  fat  is  about 
2i  times  as  valuable  for  the  production  of  body  fat  as  the 
same  amount  of  protein  or  carbohydrates. 

The  Nutritive  Ratio.  —  Inasmuch  as  it  is  very  difficult 
to  remember  even  approximately  the  relative  amounts  of 
digestil)le  nutrients  in  the  feedingstuffs,  scientists  have 
endeavored  to  simplify  it  l^y  introducing  the  term,  nutritive 

*  "The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals,"  p.  75. 


90  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

ratio.  The  nutritive  ratio,  although  it  does  not  state  the 
amounts  of  the  different  nutrients  in  a  feedingstuff,  does 
indicate  the  relative  proportion  of  the  nutrients  present. 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  the  ratio  of  digestible  nitrogenous 
nutrients  to  digestible  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  in  a  feed 
or  ration;  i.e.  it  is  the  ratio  of  digestible  crude  protein  to 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  digestible  fat.  The  nutritive 
ratio  may  be  regarded  as  expressing  the  relative  value  of 
feeds  as  flesh-,  and  as  fat-,  or  energy-formers.  The  nutritive 
ratio  indicates  at  a  glance  whether  a  feedingstuff  is  suitable 
for  growing,  fattening,  work,  or  milk-producing  animals,  or 
whether  it  should  be  used  in  combination  with  other  feeds,  in 
order  to  have  the  proper  proportion  of  nutrients  in  the  ration. 

Inasmuch  as  fat  is  about  2 J  times  as  valuable  for  fat  produc- 
tion as  protein  and  carbohydrates  and,  as  was  stated  on  page 
19,  as  fat  contains  about  2\  times  as  much  energy  as  the  same 
amount  of  protein  and  carbohydrates,  the  amount  of  digestible 
fat  is  multipHed  by  2\  and  added  to  the  amount  of  digestible 
carbohydrates,  and  the  sum  is  then  divided  by  the  amount  of 
digestible  protein.  The  first  term  of  the  ratio  is  always  ''1," 
while  the  second  term  is  obtained  by  the  following  formula : 

digestible  carbohydrates  +  2^  (digestible  fat)  ^  ^H    t 
digestible  protein 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  written  as  ''1:6"  or  "  1 :  14,"  or 
whatever  it  may  be.  It  is  read  as  "  one  to  six,"  or  "  one 
to  fourteen."  Thus  one  finds  the  nutritive  ratio  of  corn 
as  follows  :  100  pounds  of  corn  contain  7.8  pounds  of  digest- 
ible protein,  66.8  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  4.3 
pounds  of  digestible  fat.  Then,  substituting  in  the  above 
formula : 


FEED    NUTRIENTS    IN    THE   ANIMAL    BODY  91 

66.8  +  2i(4.3)_^^ 
7.8  "^-^ 

Therefore  the  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  is  1 :  9.8. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  a  ration  containing  two  or  more 
feeds  is  obtained  by  calculating  from  Table  29  or  30  of  the 
Appendix,  the  amount  of  digestible  protein,  digestible  car- 
bohydrates, and  digestible  fat  in  the  ration  and  substituting 
these  values^  in  the  above  formula.  Thus  one  calculates  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  a  ration  of  16  pounds  of  corn,  3  pounds  of 
linseed  oil  meal,  and  8  pounds  of  clover  hay  as  follows : 


Digestible 

Digestible 

Digestible 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

3  lb.  oil  meal     .     .     . 

0.91 

0.96 

0.21 

16  lb.  corn      .... 

1.25 

10.69 

0.69 

8  lb.  clover  hay      .     . 

0.57 

3.02 

0.14 

Total  ration 

2.73 

14.67 

1.04 

14.67  +  2^(1.04) 
2.73 


=  6.2 


Therefore  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  is  1 :  6.2. 

Ordinarily,  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:6  or  less  is  called  a 
narrow  ratio,  i.e.  the  feedingstuff  or  ration  contains  a 
relatively  large  amount  of  protein  and  a  relatively  small 
amount  of  carbohydrates  and  fat.  A  ratio  of  1:7  to  1:9 
is  called  a  medium  ratio,  i.e.  there  is  present  a  medium 
amount  of  protein  and  a  medium  amount  of  carbohydrates 
and  fat.  A  ratio  of  1 :  10  or  greater  is  called  a  wide  ratio, 
i.e.  the  proportion  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  and  fats  is 
relatively  small.  The  nutritive  ratios  vary  considerably 
for  different  feeds,  e.g.  from  1 : 0.1  in  the  case  of  dried 
blood  to  1 :  57.9  in  the  case  of  rye  straw. 


CHAPTER  VI 

ENERGY    IN    FEEDINGSTUFFS    AND    ITS    USES    IN 
THE    ANIMAL    BODY 

Energy  is  defined  by  the  physicist  as  the  capacity  of  per- 
forming work.  Inasmuch  as  the  muscular  tissues  of  farm 
animals  are  always  doing  a  certain  amount  of  work,  it  is  of 
interest  to  study  the  ways  in  which  animals  utilize  energy 
and  to  study  the  values  of  the  different  nutrients  and  the 
different  feedingstuffs  as  sources  of  energj\ 

There  are  two  kinds  of  energy,  kinetic  and  potential 
Kinetic  energy  is  energy  due  to  motion ;  e.g.  a  moving  train 
has  energy  due  to  its  motion ;  heat  is  a  form  of  energy  duo 
to  the  motion  of  the  heat  waves.  In  other  words,  kinetic  is 
active  energy.  Potential  energy  is  energy  due  to  position 
or  composition ;  e.g.  a  coiled  watch  spring  has  energy  due 
to  its  position ;  starch  has  energy  due  to  its  composi- 
tion. Potential  energy  is  stored  energy.  These  two  forms 
of  energy  are  interchangeable  from  one  to  the  other. 
Thus  the  plant  by  means  of  its  chlorophyll  can  take  the 
kinetic  energy  or  heat  of  the  sun's  rays  and  change  it  to 
the  potential  form,  storing  it  in  the  form  of  proteins,  car- 
bohydrates, and  fats.  This  potential  energy  may  be  changed 
back  to  kinetic  form  by  burning  the  plant  and  liberating  the 
stored  energy  in  the  kinetic  form  as  heat.  In  similar  manner, 
the  animal  can  take  the  potential  energy  of  its  feed  and 

92 


ENERGY    IN    FEEDINGSTUFFS    AND    ITS    USES        93 

change  it  to  kinetic  form  to  warm  the  body,  or  to  do  work ; 
or  the  animal  can  store  a  part  of  the  potential  energy  of  the 
feed  in  the  animal  body  in  the  potential  form  as  fat.  The 
animal,  however,  is  unable  to  utilize  directly  the  kinetic 
energy  of  the  sun's  rays  as  does  the  plant,  and,  consequently 
the  animal  kingdom  is  dependent  for  its  supply  upon  the 
potential  or  stored-up  energy  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Thus,  besides  furnishing  the  proteins  and  mineral  matter 
necessary  for  the  repair  and  growth  of  the  animal,  the  feed 
is  the  sole  source  of  the  energy  so  essential  to  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  life. 

The  units  used  for  the  measurement  of  energy  are  the 
Calorie  and  the  therm.  A  Calorie  is  the  amount  of  energy 
in  the  form  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
one  kilogram  of  water  through  one  degree  Centigrade,  or 
of  one  pound  of  water  through  four  degrees  Fahrenheit.  A 
therm  is  one  thousand  Calories.  When  speaking  of  the 
energy  values  of  feedingstuffs,  the  therm  is  used  more  gen- 
erally ;  while  when  speaking  of  the  energy  values  of  human 
foods,  the  Calorie  is  commonly  used. 

Gross  Energy  or  Heat  of  Combustion.  —  The  total  amount 
of  energy  stored  in  a  feedingstuff  is  called  its  gross  energy 
or  the  heat  of  combustion.  The  gross  energy  of  a  feed 
is  determined  by  burning  it  in  an  apparatus  known  as  the 
homb  calorimeter,  which  consists  essentially  of  a  steel  cyl- 
inder or  bomb  surrounded  by  a  known  quantity  of  water. 
A  sample  of  the  feedingstuff  is  placed  in  the  bomb,  which  is 
then  filled  with  oxygen  to  insure  complete  combustion.  The 
sample  is  ignited  by  means  of  an  electric  current,  and  the 
amount  of  heat  liberated  in  the  combustion  is  determined 
from  the  rise  in  the  temperature  of  the  water  surrounding 


Fig.  21.  —  Section  of  a  bomb  calorimeter.  (Storrs  Experiment  Station.) 
U,  outer  bucket ;  T,  inner  bucket ;  Q,  metal  pail ;  A,  water  ;  S,  stirring  appa- 
ratus ;  B,  M,  K,  steel  bomb,  lined  with  platinum  ;  O,  platinum  dish  in  which 
feed  sample  is  placed  ;  G,  valve  for  letting  in  oxygen  ;  V,  W,  H,  I,  electrical 
connections. 

94 


ENERGY  IN  FEEDINGSTUFFS  AND   ITS    USES  95 

the  bomb.  Figure  21  shows  a  cross-section  of  a  bomb  calo- 
rimeter. 

The  gross  energy  of  one  pound  of  each  nutrient  is  approxi- 
mately as  follows:  protein,  2.6  therms;  carbohydrates,  1.9 
therms ;  and  fat,  4.2  therms.  The  gross  energy  of  the  hays 
and  straws  is  about  1.7  therms  per  pound,  while  that  of  the 
grains  and  other  concentrates  usually  is  from  1.7  to  2.0 
therms  per  pound.  A  knowledge  of  the  gross  energy  values 
of  feedingstuffs,  however,  is  of  Httle  practical  value,  as  it 
rarely  if  ever  happens  that  all  of  the  energy  stored  up  in  the 
feed  is  available  to  the  animal  for  its  life  processes. 

Metabolizable  or  Available  Energy.  —  Not  all  the  energy 
of  a  feedingstuff  is  accessible  to  the  animal  body.  Some  of 
the  energy  of  the  feed  passes  through  the  body  in  unhberated 
form  in  the  feces  as  the  undigested  food  residue.  Some  of 
the  energy  passes  out  of  the  body  unliberated  in  the  form  of 
combustible  gases,  as  methane  and  hydrogen,  which  are 
formed  during  the  fermentation  of  the  feed  in  the  rumen  and 
large  intestine.  Further,  some  unhberated  energy  is  lost  by 
the  excretion  of  only  partially  oxidized  substances,  as  urea 
in  the  urine. 

Thus  one  must  differentiate  between  the  amount  of  the 
gross  energy  of  a  feed  and  the  amount  of  energy  which 
actually  is  liberated  or  made  available  in  the  animal  body. 
That  part  of  the  gross  energy  which  may  be  Uberated  in  or 
utihzed  by  the  animal  in  the  processes  of  metabolism  is 
called  the  metabolizable  energy  or  available  energy  of  the 
feed.  Mathematically,  the  metaboHzable  energy  of  a  feed- 
ingstuff may  be  regarded  as  the  total  energy  of  the  feed  less 
the  energy  of  the  feces,  urine,  and  excreted  gases. 

The  gross  energy  of  a  feed  may  be  compared  to  the  heat 


96 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


of  combustion  of  coal  placed  under  the  boilers  of  a  steam 
engine.  Thus  one  ma}-  compare  the  losses  of  energy  in  the 
animal  body  to  the  unburned  or  only  partially  burned  soot, 
smoke,  and  cinders  of  the  coal.  The  energ>^  of  the  coal 
which  actually  is  liberated  under  the  boiler  of  the  engine 


Fig.  22.  —  Respiration  culorinicter  at  the  Institute  of  Animal  Nutrition, 
State  College,  Pa. 

corresponds  to  the  metabolizable  or  available  energy  of  the 
feed. 

The  metabolizable  energy  of  a  feedingstuff  is  determined 
by  means  of  the  ])omb  calorimeter  already  mentioned,  and 
an  apparatus  known  as  the  respiration  calorirneter.  The 
respiration  calorimeter  is  a  very  complicated  apparatus,  by 
means  of  wliich  the  amounts  of  gas,  urine,  feces,  and  heat 


ENERGY  IN  FEEDINGSTVFFS  AND   ITS    USES  97 

excreted  by  an  animal  can  be  measured.  It  consists  of  a 
closed  chamber  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  animal 
under  experimentation.  Fresh  air  is  pumped  into  the 
chamber  and  the  vitiated  air  is  pumped  out  and  analyzed 
to  determine  the  gases  excreted  by  the  animal.  The  feces 
are  collected  by  means  of  a  digestion  harness,  and  the  urine 
by  means  of  a  rubber  funnel  and  duct  strapped  on  to  the 
belly  of  the  animal.  The  heat  given  off  by  the  animal  is 
determined  by  the  rise  in  temperature  of  a  known  amount 
of  water  which  flows  through  radiators  in  the  chamber  and 
absorbs  the  heat  given  ofT  by  the  animal.  The  only  res- 
piration calorimeter  in  this  country  large  enough  for  exper- 
iments with  cattle  is  that  used  by  Armsby  at  the  Institute 
of  Animal  Nutrition  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College.^ 
Figure  22  shows  this  respiration  calorimeter. 

In  determining  the  metabolizable  energy  of  a  feedingstuff, 
its  gross  energy  is  determined  by  the  bomb  calorimeter. 
A  known  amount  of  it  is  fed  to  an  animal  wearing  a  digestion 
harness  and  urine  funnel  in  the  respiration  calorimeter.  The 
feces,  urine,  and  combustible  gases  are  collected,  and  the 
energy  lost  through  them  is  determined  by  means  of  the 
bomb  calorimeter.  The  energy  of  the  urine,  feces,  and 
gases  subtracted  from  the  gross  energy  of  the  feedingstuff 
gives  the  amount  of  the  metaboHzable  energy  in  the  feeding- 
stuff. 

Uses  of  the  Metabolizable  Energy.  —  The  metaboHzable 
energy  of  the  ration  serves  for  three  general  purposes  in  the 
animal  body:  (1)  it  suppHes  energy  for  carrying  on  the 
different  forms  of  work  of  the  animal  body ;    (2)  in  certain 

1  For  a  detailed  description  of  this  respiration  calorimeter,  see  Penn. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  104. 


98  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

special  cases,  it  supplies  energy  in  the  form  of  heat  to  keep 
the  body  warm;  and  (3)  if  the  supply  is  in  excess  of  the 
demands  of  the  body  for  the  first  and  second  purposes,  a 
portion  of  it  may  be  stored  up  as  gain  of  body  tissue,  espe- 
cially as  fat,  or  it  may  be  used  for  milk  production. 

The  work  of  the  animal  body  may  be  regarded  as  made 
up  of  the  following  forms:  (1)  work  of  the  vital  processes, 
including  circulation  and  respiration ;  (2)  work  of  digestion 
and  absorption,  including  mastication,  swallowing,  rumina- 
tion, peristaltic  movements,  and  the  activity  of  the  various 
digestive  glands ;  and  (3)  work  of  the  voluntary  muscles, 
such  as  walking  and  puUing. 

The  following  diagram  modified    from    Armsby,^  briefly 

summarizes  the  uses  of  the  metabolizable  energy  of  the 

feed: 

Of  vital  process 
'  Work  {  Of  digestion  and  absorption 
Of  voluntary  muscles 


Metabolizable 
energy 


Heat  production 
I  Storage  of  energy 


Work  of  the  Vital  Processes.  —  A  certain  amount  of  energy 
is  in  constant  demand  for  the  performance  of  the  work  of 
the  vital  organs,  such  as  the  heart  and  lungs.  The  amount 
of  energy  expended  in  this  manner  is  not  under  control  of 
the  animal,  as  these  organs  cease  their  labors  only  at  death. 
Thus,  it  is  apparent  that  in  the  hving  animal  there  always 
is  an  expenditure  of  a  certain  amount  of  energy  for  carrying 
on  the  vital  processes  of  the  body.  If  there  is  not  enough 
energy  in  the  ration  for  this  purpose  the  animal  uses  its  body 

1  "  Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,"  p.  339. 


ENERGY  IN  FEEDINGSTUFFS  AND   ITS    USES  99 

glycogen  and  fat  to  furnish  energy  for  the  deficiency.  After 
the  body  fat  is  used  up,  the  animal  uses  the  protein  tissues 
of  the  body  as  a  source  of  energy  for  the  running  of  the  vital 
organs,  and  then  soon  dies  of  starvation. 

Work  of  Digestion  and  Absorption.  —  The  consumption 
of  feed  by  an  animal  is  always  accompanied  and  followed 
by  a  large  increase  in  the  amount  of  energy  expended.  This 
increase  was  formerly  thought  to  be  due  entirely  to  the  energy 
expended  in  the  work  of  mastication,  swallowing,  rumination, 
fermentation,  peristalsis,  secretion  of  the  digestive  juices, 
and  the  distribution  of  the  absorbed  nutrients.  Hence,  it 
was  spoken  of  as  the  energy  expended  for  the  work  of  diges- 
tion. Later  experiments  with  dogs,  cats,  and  men,  however, 
appear  to  have  shown  that  the  energy  expended  in  the 
mechanical  work  of  digestion  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  in- 
creased expenditure  of  energy  due  to  the  consumption  of 
food.  In  case  of  the  carnivora  and  man,  the  greater  part 
of  the  increased  expenditure  of  energy  seems  to  be  due  to  an 
effect  which  the  absorbed  nutrients,  particularly  the  amino 
acids,  have  upon  the  metabolism  of  the  cells,  stimulating 
them  to  higher  oxidation  and  consequent  liberation  of  energy 
in  the  form  of  heat.  Thus  the  term,  ^'  work  of  digestion,"  as 
applied  to  the  increased  expenditure  of  energy  after  food 
consumption,  is  not  strictly  true,  but  in  lieu  of  a  better  term 
we  shall  continue  to  use  it.  In  herbivora,  and  especially  in 
ruminants,  the  expenditure  of  energy  due  to  actual  work  of 
digestion  is  much  greater  than  in  carnivora,  due  to  the  large 
amount  of  energy  expended  in  the  work  of  mastication  and 
rumination,  and  to  the  loss  of  energy  as  heat  of  fermentation. 
However,  whether  the  increased  expenditure  of  energy  after 
food  consumption  is  due  to  actual  work  of  digestion  or  to 


100  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

stimulation  of  the  metabolism  by  the  products  of  digestion, 
the  fact  remains  that  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  energy 
wasted  in  the  form  of  heat  when  an  animal  consumes  a  feed. 
Armsby  found  that  in  case  of  steers  about  one-fourth  of  the 
gross  energy  of  the  ration  was  liberated  in  the  form  of  heat. 
This  means  that  a  certain  amount  of  the  metabohzable 
energy  of  the  ration  is  wasted  as  far  as  having  any  value 
for  maintenance  of,  or  production  by,  the  animal  is  con- 
cerned. 

Net  Energy.  —  The  part  of  the  metabohzable  energy  of 
a  feed  which  remains  after  deducting  the  amount  of  energy 
expended  in  the  so-called  ''  work  of  digestion,"  is  called  its 
net  energy.  The  net  energy  is  the  measure  of  the  net 
advantage  derived  by  the  body  from  the  feed.  In  other 
words,  the  net  energy  of  a  feedingstuff  represents  the  amount 
of  energy  which  it  may  contribute  to  the  animal  body  for 
maintenance  and  for  productive  purposes.  Mathematically, 
the  net  energy  may  be  defined  as  the  gross  energy  minus  the 
losses  of  chemical  energy  in  the  excreta  and  the  increased 
heat  production  consequent  upon  the  consumption  of  the 
feed. 

Returning  again  to  the  comparison  of  the  animal  body 
with  the  steam  engine,  we  may  assume  that  the  engine  is 
self-stoking.  In  that  case,  not  all  of  the  energy  hberated 
under  the  boiler  is  available  to  the  engine  for  the  production 
of  work.  A  certain  amount  of  it  must  be  expended  for  the 
operation  of  the  self-stoking  apparatus  which  puts  the  fuel 
under  the  boilers.  This  expenditure  of  energy  corresponds 
to  the  expenditure  in  the  animal  Ixxly  for  the  digestion, 
absorption,  and  distribution  of  the  nutrients  of  the  ration. 
The  amount  of  the  energy  of  the  coal  which  remains  after 


ENERGY  IN   FEEDINGSTUFFS   AND   ITS    USES        101 

making  this  deduction  corresponds  to  the  net  energy  of  the 
feed. 

The  amount  of  net  energy  in  a  f eedingstuff  is  obtained  by 
determining  by  means  of  the  respiration  calorimeter  the 
increased  amount  of  energy  expended  by  the  animal  after 
consuming  the  feedingstuiTs,  and  subtracting  this  increase 
from  the  metabolizable  energy.  The  result  is  the  net  energy. 
Armsby  has  found  that  only  55  to  70  per  cent  of  the  metab- 
ohzable  energy  of  the  ration  may  be  utihzed  for  maintenance 
and  for  productive  purposes.  As  yet  the  net  energy  values 
of  only  15  or  18  feeds  have  been  actually  determined,  omng 
to  the  great  expenditure  of  money,  time,  and  labor  necessary 
in  their  determination.  However,  Armsby  and  Fries  ^  and 
Kellner  ^  have  worked  out  a  method  by  which  the  net 
energy  values  of  feedingstuffs  may  be  calculated  with  some 
degree  of  accuracy.  The  net  energy  values  of  the  common 
feedingstuffs  as  calculated  by  Armsby  are  given  in  Table 
31,  of  the  Appendix.  These  values  are  fairly  accurate  for 
these  feeds  when  fed  to  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses,  but  they 
have  little  value  in  case  of  hogs. 

Net  Energy  Value  of  Nutrients.  —  In  general,  the  average 
net  energy  values  of  the  digested  nutrients  expressed  in 
therms  per  pound  are  approximately  as  follows :  protein, 
1.02;  carbohydrates,  1.00;  and  fat,  2.25.  Thus  for  the 
production  of  energy,  protein  and  carbohydrates  have 
practically  the  same  value,  while  fat  is  about  2j  times  as 
valuable. 

Work  of  the  Voluntary  Muscles.  —  Any  surplus  of  net 
energy  above  the  maintenance  requirement  and,  in  special 

1  Penn.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  71 ;   Jour.  Agr.  Res.,  Ill,  6,  p.  486, 

2  "Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals,"  p.  82. 


102  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

cases,  the  requirements  for  heat  production,  is  available  to 
the  animal  for  the  work  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  such  as 
walking,  puUing,  carrying,  etc.  However,  not  all  the  net 
energy  available  for  the  production  of  voluntary  work  can 
be  recovered  in  the  form  of  work.  A  certain  amount  is 
lost  in  the  form  of  heat  during  the  transformation.  This 
loss  may  be  compared  to  the  loss  of  energy  as  heat  occurring 
in  any  gas,  gasoline,  or  other  internal  combustion  engine. 
The  gas  is  oxidized  or  exploded  in  the  cylinders  of  the  engine 
with  the  liberation  of  energy.  In  a  comparable  manner 
the  digested  and  absorbed  nutrients  of  the  feed  are  oxidized 
in  the  cells  of  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  animal  with  the 
Hberation  of  energy.  In  either  ^case,  a  considerable  part 
of  the  energy  liberated  is  not  recovered  as  work  but  is  lost 
in  the  form  of  heat.  Anyone  who  has  had  experience  with 
gas  engines  is  famihar  with  the  fact  that  only  a  fraction  of 
the  energy  of  the  fuel  can  be  recovered  as  work.  A  similar 
loss  occurs  in  the  cells  of  the  muscles  of  the  animal.  When 
the  nutrients  are  oxidized,  a  considerable  amount  of  the 
energy  {i.e.  the  net  energy  of  the  feed)  is  lost  in  the  form 
of  heat.  Thus,  on  a  cold  day  one  walks  faster,  or  slaps  his 
arms,  or  stamps  his  feet,  or  shivers  in  order  that  the  body 
may  have  the  benefit  of  the  heat  which  is  generated  in  the 
performance  of  this  work. 

Coefficient  of  Utilization.  —  The  percentage  of  the  energy 
of  the  fuel  which  may  be  recovered  by  a  motor  in  the  form 
of  work  is  known  as  the  "  coefficient  of  utilization."  The 
coefficient  of  utilization  with  respect  to  the  animal  takes 
account  only  of  the  loss  which  occurs  in  the  conversion  of 
the  net  energy  into  work.  That  is,  it  is  the  percentage  of 
the  net  energy  of  the  ration  (not  the  gross  energy  of  the  fuel 


ENERGY  IN  FEEDINGSTUFFS   AND  ITS    USES        103 

as  in  case  of  the  engine),  which  may  be  recovered  in  the  form 
of  work.  In  experiments  with  men,  it  was  found  that  28  to 
37  per  cent  of  the  net  energy  was  recovered  as  work.  Dogs 
recovered  29  to  31  per  cent,  and  horses  29  to  38  per  cent. 
In  general,  about  one-third  of  the  net  energy  may  be  re- 
covered in  the  form  of  voluntary  work,  i.e.  the  coefficient 
of  utilization  is  about  33  per  cent.  Computed  on  the  basis 
of  the  gross  energy  of  the  ration,  it  is  about  20  per  cent.  The 
best  steam  engines  have  about  the  same  coefficient  of  utili- 
zation, while  the  average  steam  engine  usually  falls  below  10 
per  cent.  Good  internal  combustion  engines  range  from  18 
to  25  per  cent. 

Heat  Production.  —  All  warm  blooded  animals,  such  as 
man,  the  horse,  cow,  hog,  etc.,  must  maintain  their  body 
temperature  at  a  practically  constant  level.  If  there  is 
any  considerable  increase  or  decrease  in  the  body  tempera- 
ture, the  result  is  usually  fatal  to  the  animal.  There  is 
always  a  certain  amount  of  heat  generated  in  the  living 
animal  coming  from  the  energy  hberated  in  the  work  of  the 
vital  processes,  the  so-called  work  of  digestion,  and  any 
voluntary  muscular  work  done  by  the  animal.  Consequently 
a  certain  amount  of  heat  is  always  being  given  off  by  the 
animal  body  by  radiation  and  conduction.  In  mild  weather 
the  heat  generated  in  the  ordinary  functions  of  the  body  is 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  body  temperature.  In  fact,  in 
warm  weather,  or  when  the  amount  of  heat  hberated  is 
increased  by  excessive  muscular  work,  the  heat  is  generated 
by  the  body  more  rapidly  than  it  can  be  disposed  of  by  con- 
duction and  radiation.  In  such  instances  the  body  reHeves 
itself  of  the  surplus  heat  by  the  evaporation  of  water  or 
perspiration  from  the  surface  of  the  body.     In  other  words, 


104         PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

the  animal  sweats.  If  the  heat  is  generated  more  rapidly 
than  it  can  be  removed  by  conduction,  radiation,  and 
perspiration  combined,  the  l^ody  temperature  rises  and  the 
animal  suffers  from  sunstroke. 

In  cold  weather,  the  animal  looses  heat  by  radiation  and 
conduction  much  more  rapidly  than  in  warm  weather. 
Consequently,  oftentimes  the  heat  produced  in  the  ordinary 
processes  of  the  body  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  and  the  animal  must  oxidize  some  of 
its  body  tissue  or  a  part  of  its  ration  in  order  to  provide  heat 
to  maintain  the  body  temperature.  If  this  does  not  suffice 
to  maintain  the  body  temperature,  the  animal  freezes  to 
death.  Thus  a  man  eats  more  in  winter  than  in  summer  in 
order  to  provide  extra  fuel  for  keeping  the  body  warm.  The 
principle  is  the  same  as  when  one  burns  more  coal  in  the 
furnace  on  a  cold  day  in  order  to  keep  up  the  temperature 
of  the  house.  Horses  and  hogs  especially  are  susceptible 
to  cold  weather,  and  must  use  a  part  of  their  ration  to  keep 
them  warm,  unless  properly  protected.  Cattle  and  sheep 
in  ordinary  winter  weather  do  not  do  this,  as  the  heat  gen- 
erated in  the  extensive  fermentations  in  their  digestive  tract 
is  sufficient  usually  to  maintain  their  body  temperature. 
If  the  weather  is  damp  and  windy,  or  if  they  are  given  very 
cold  water  to  drink,  it  may  be  necessary  even  for  them  to 
burn  feed  to  keep  warm.  Of  course,  energ>^  expended  in 
this  way  is  a  loss  as  far  as  economic  production  is  concerned, 
and  the  feeder  should  avoid  it,  in  so  far  as  possible,  by  pro- 
viding a  comfortable  shelter,  by  removing  the  chill  from 
the  drinking  water,  and  by  offering  water  several  times 
daily  in  cold  weather  so  that  large  amounts  of  cold  water 
will  not  be  taken  into  the  body  at  any  one  time.     A  shelter 


ENERGY  IN   FEEDINGSTUFFS   AND   ITS    USES       105 

other  than  a  dry,  open  shed  is  not  necessary  for  beef  cattle 
and  sheep,  except  at  calving  or  lambing  time.  Horses  and 
hogs  should  have  a  fairly  warm,  comfortable  enclosure. 

Storage  of  Energy.  —  The  animal  body  differs  from  the 
machine  in  that  an}^  energy  above  the  amount  required  for 
the  different  forms  of  work  and  for  heat  production  is  not 
wasted,  but  it  may  be  stored  in  the  body,  principally  as 
fat,  or  as  protein  tissue,  and  used  for  the  production  of  work 
or  heat  at  any  subsequent  time  when  the  energy  of  the  ration 
is  insufficient,  or  it  may  be  used  for  the  production  of  milk. 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  all  other  demands  of  the 
body  for  energy-,  including  maintenance,  heat  production, 
and  voluntary  work,  must  be  satisfied  before  there  can  be 
any  storage  of  energy  or  any  energy  available  for  milk  pro- 
duction. 

Energy  Values  of  Feedingstuffs.  —  From  the  standpoint 
of  practical  stockfeeding,  it  is  the  net  energy  contained  in 
a  feed  which  is  of  interest.  Hence,  in  speaking  of  the  energy 
values  of  feedingstuffs,  one  usually  refers  to  the  net  energy 
values.  Armsby's  table  showing  the  amounts  of  net  energy 
contained  in  the  more  common  feedingstuffs  is  given  in  Table 
31,  of  the  Appendix. 

In  general,  feedingstuffs  may  l^e  divided  into  two  main 
groups  according  to  the  amounts  of  net  energy  contained 
in  them.  These  two  groups  are  (1)  concentrates,  and  (2) 
roughages. 

Concentrates  may  be  defined  as  feedingstuffs  which  con- 
tain a  relatively  large  amount  of  net  energy  (or  digestible 
nutrients)  in  a  small  ])ulk.  Ordinarily,  concentrates  have 
a  net  energy  value  of  60  therms  or  more  per  100  pounds  of 
feed.     As   might   be   expected  from   their   definition,   they 


106  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

usually  are  highly  nutritious  in  nature.  Examples  of 
common  concentrates  are  corn,  oats,  the  oil  meals,  mid- 
dlings, and  tankage. 

Concentrates  often  are  divided  into  ''  nitrogenous  "  and 
"non-nitrogenous  "  concentrates  upon  the  basis  of  their  pro- 
tein content.  Nitrogenous  concentrates  are  high  in  digestible 
protein.  They  usually  contain  11  per  cent  or  more  of  digest- 
ible protein.  Examples  are  tankage,  the  oil  meals,  and 
middlings.  Non-nitrogenous  concentrates  are  low  in  digest- 
ible protein  and  high  in  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fats. 
They  are  often  spoken  of  as  carbonaceous  concentrates. 
They  usually  contain  less  than  11  per  cent  of  digestible 
protein.     Examples  are  corn,  oats,  and  barley. 

Roughages  may  be  defined  as  feedingstuffs  which  contain 
a  relatively  small  amount  of  net  energy  (or  digestible  nu- 
trients) in  a  large  bulk.  They  contain  a  large  percentage  of 
crude  fiber.  Roughages  usually  contain  less  than  40  therms 
of  net  energy  per  100  pounds,  although  there  are  a  few 
exceptions.  Nitrogenous  roughages  are  relatively  high  in 
digestible  protein.  They  usually  contain  6  per  cent  or 
more  of  digestible  protein.  Examples  are  clover,  alfalfa, 
and  soy-bean  hay.  Non-nitrogenous  roughages  are  relatively 
low  in  digestible  protein.  They  usually  contain  less  than 
6  per  cent  of  digestible  protein.  Examples  are  timothy 
hay,  corn  stover,  and  oat  straw. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE    COMPOUNDING    OF    RATIONS 

Most  of  us  will  agree  that  the  rations  of  our  farm  animals 
should  be  regulated,  both  in  character  and  in  quantity. 
This  is  necessary  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the  physical 
well-being  of  the  animal  and  from  the  financial  well-being 
of  the  farmer.  The  appetite  of  the  animal  cannot  be  accepted 
as  an  accurate  or  practicable  index  of  its  feed  requirements. 
If  the  farm  animal,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  hog, 
is  given  free  access  to  a  number  of  different  feedingstuffs 
and  allowed  to  formulate  its  own  ration,  the  result  often- 
times will  not  only  be  disastrous  from  the  financial  stand- 
point, but,  in  many  cases,  it  will  mean  permanent  injury 
or  even  death  to  the  animal.  Thus  the  careful  feeder  al- 
ways selects  the  feeds  and  usually  regulates  the  amounts 
eaten. 

Before  taking  up  in  detail  the  specific  feed  requirements  of 
farm  animals  in  terms  of  digestible  nutrients  and  net  energy, 
it  may  be  well  to  mention  some  of  the  general  guides  that 
are  followed  more  or  less  closely  by  practical  feeders.  A 
man  cannot  be  a  successful  feeder  unless  he  is  thoroughly 
famihar  with  the  practical  as  well  as  the  scientific  side  of 
feeding.  Of  course,  the  only  way  to  acquire  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  practical  side  of  stockfeeding  is  by  actual 
experience,  but  in  lieu  of  this  experience,  a  knowledge  of 

107 


108  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

some  of  the  general  practices  followed  by  feeders  will  be  of 
some  value. 

The  ration  should  be  so  formulated  as  to  satisfy  the 
appetite  without  exceeding  the  requirements  of  the  animal. 
It  is  obvious  that  unless  the  ration  satisfies  the  appetite  of 
the  animal,  the  results  will  not  be  satisfactory,  as  the  animal 
will  be  nervous  and  discontented.  However,  if  the  appetite 
is  satisfied  only  by  feeding  more  than  the  requirements  of 
the  animal,  it  will  not  only  be  uneconomical  from  a  financial 
standpoint,  but  it  may  injure  the  animal.  Both  these  condi- 
tions may  be  satisfied  approximately  by  feeding  the  required 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  such  bulk  that  the  animal 
is  "  filled  up  "  and  the  appetite  is  satisfied.  In  other  words, 
it  is  accomplished  by  feeding  a  proper  amount  and  proportion 
of  concentrates  and  roughages.  In  many  cases,  in  actual 
practice  the  ration  is  regulated  by  Umiting  only  the  con- 
centrates and  feeding  the  roughage  ad  libitum.  For  example, 
one  usually  limits  the  amount  of  corn  which  a  hog  eats  while 
on  pasture  to  that  amount  which,  together  with  the  pasture, 
will  produce  satisfactory  gains.  Then,  if  the  hog  is  still 
hungry,  he  can  eat  the  cheap  roughage  with  safety  until  his 
appetite  is  satisfied.  Although  not  always  to  be  recom- 
mended, this  method  of  regulating  rations  is  often  used. 
In  feeding  a  very  palatable  roughage,  as  alfalfa  hay  or  corn 
silage,  it  often  is  advisable  to  limit  the  amount  of  roughage 
fed  in  order  to  induce  the  animal  to  eat  enough  concentrates. 

Also  it  is  usually  desirable  to  feed  several  feeds  rather 
than  one  or  two,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  variety  in  the  ration 
but  also  because  in  feeding  only  one  or  two  feeds  some  of  the 
essential  amino  acids  may  not  oe  supplied  in  sufficient 
amounts  for  the  best  results. 


THE   COMPOUNDING    OF   RATIONS  109 

Customary  Rations  for  Farm  Animals.  —  The  following 
general  rules  will  serve  to  give  the  inexperienced  feeder  a 
general  idea  of  the  nature  and  amount  of  the  rations  given 
to  farm  animals.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these 
rules  should  serve  only  as  very  general  guides,  to  be  modified 
to  suit  individual  animals  and  different  conditions  with 
respect  to  the  supply  and  relative  costs  of  feeds. 

HORSES 

1.  In  general,  feed  2  pounds  of  feed  per  day  per  100 
pounds  live  weight. 

2.  For  a  foal  at  weaning  time,  feed  2  quarts  (2  pounds) 
of  oats  per  day  and  hay  ad  libitum. 

■  3.  For  a  colt  one  year  old,  weighing  about  700  pounds, 
feed  1  gallon  (4  pounds)  of  oats  per  day  and  hay  ad 
libitum. 

4.  For  a  horse  which  is  doing  no  work,  feed  hay  ad  libitum 
and  as  much  concentrates  as  necessary  to  keep  the  animal  in 
good  condition. 

5.  For  a  driving  horse  weighing  about  1200  pounds,  feed 
one  pound  of  concentrates  and  one  pound  of  roughage  per 
day  per  100  pounds  five  weight ;  or  feed  3  gallons  (12  pounds) 
of  oats  daily  with  hay  ad  libitum. 

6.  For  a  horse  weighing  about  1400  pounds,  doing  average 
farm  work,  feed  IJ  pounds  of  concentrates  and  1  to  Ij 
pounds  of  hay  per  day  per  100  pounds  hve  weight;  or 
feed  24  ears  of  corn  (17  pounds),  or  IJ  gallons  of  oats  (6 
pounds)  and  15  ears  of  corn  (lOj  pounds),  or  3  gallons  of 
oats  (12  pounds)  and  7  ears  of  corn  (5  pounds)  per  day 
with  hay  ad  libitum. 

7.  For  a  horse  weighing  about  1500  pounds  at  hard  farm 


110  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

work,  feed  IJ  pounds  of  concentrates  and  1  to  IJ  pounds  of 
hay  per  day  per  100  pounds  live  weight ;  or  feed  30  ears  of 
corn  (21  pounds),  or  20  ears  of  corn  (14  pounds)  and  \\ 
gallons  of  oats  (6  pounds)  per  day  with  hay  ad  libitum. 

DAIRY    CATTLE 

1.  For  young  calves  (weighing  about  100  pounds),  feed 
6  quarts  of  whole  milk  per  day  with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
ad  libitum. 

2.  For  calves  (weighing  about  300  pounds),  feed  8  quarts 
of  skim  milk  and  3  pounds  of  concentrates  per  day  and  clover 
or  alfalfa  hay  ad  libitum. 

3.  For  the  maintenance  of  dry  cows,  feed  20  pounds  of 
corn  silage  and  other  roughage  ad  libitum,  or  4  pounds  of 
grain  and  roughage  ad  libitum,  or  run  on  pasture. 

4.  The  average  cow  requires  about  24  pounds  of  digestible 
dry  substance  daily.  .About  two-thirds  or  16  pounds  of  the 
digestible  dry  substance  of  the  ration  should  be  in  the  form 
of  roughage  and  one-third  or  8  pounds  in  the  form  of  concen- 
trates. 

5.  Feed  about  2  pounds  of  dry  roughage,^  or  1  pound  of 
dry  roughage  and  3  pounds  of  silage  per  100  pounds  of  live 
weight  together  with  concentrates  as  prescribed  in  Rules 
6  and  7. 

6.  Feed  one  pound  of  concentrates  ^  daily  per  every  three 
pounds  of  milk  produced  daily  and  roughage  ad  libitum. 

1  When  feeding  silage  due  allowance  should  be  made  for  the  fact  that  it 
contains  only  about  25  per  cent  of  dry  substance.  Thus  40  pounds  of 
silage  actually  contain  only  about  10  pounds  of  dry  substance. 

2  In  feeding  corn  silage  allowance  should  be  made  for  the  fact  that  it 
contains  about  14  per  cent  of  corn.  For  example,  40  pounds  of  silage  would 
contain  5.6  pounds  of  corn. 


THE   COMPOUNDING    OF   RATIONS  111 

7.  Feed  one  pound  of  concentrates  daily  for  every  pound 
of  butter  fat  produced  per  week  and  roughage  ad  libitum. 

8.  Use  a  variety  of  feeds  for  best  results. 

BEEF    CATTLE 

1.  In  general,  feed  2|  pounds  of  feed  per  100  pounds  live 
weight. 

2.  For  maintenance,  feed  roughage  ad  lihiturti. 

3.  For  wintering  stockers,  feed  roughage  ad  libitum. 

4.  In  getting  fattening  cattle  on  full  feed,  start  them  out 
with  2  pounds  of  concentrates  per  day  per  head  and  rough- 
age ad  libitum.  Increase  the  concentrates  one  pound  daily 
until  they  receive  10  pounds  of  concentrates  per  head,  then 
increase  the  concentrates  one  pound  every  three  days  until 
they  are  on  full-feed. 

5.  For  fattening  cattle  on  full-feed,  feed  If  to  2  pounds 
of  concentrates  ^  and  f  pound  of  roughage  per  day  per  100 
pounds  live  weight. 

HOGS 

1.  In  general,  feed  3  to  5  pounds  of  concentrates  per  100 
pounds  hve  weight  according  to  age,  giving  larger  rations 
to  younger  and  smaller  rations  to  older  hogs. 

2.  For  pigs  at  weaning  time  (weighing  about  50  pounds), 
feed  5  pounds  of  concentrates  per  100  pounds  hve  weight, 
or  4  pounds  of  concentrates  per  day  per  100  pounds  live 
weight  and  forage  ad  libitum. 

1  In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  many  cattle  feeders,  especially 
outside  the  corn-belt,  use  much  less  concentrates  and  more  roughage  than 
prescribed  by  this  rule.  Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  Station  recommends 
not  more  than  1  pound  of  grain  per  100  pounds  live  weight. 


112  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 

3.  For  shoats  (weighing  about  100  pounds),  feed  4  to  5 
pounds  of  concentrates,  or  3  to  4  pounds  of  concentrates 
per  day  and  forage  ad  libitum. 

4.  For  fattening  hogs  (weighing  200  to  300  pounds), 
feed  3  pounds  of  concentrates  daily  per  100  pounds  live 
weight. 

SHEEP 

1.  For  young  lambs  (weighing  30  to  50  pounds),  feed  J- 
to  ^  pound  of  concentrates  per  day  with  roughage  ad  libitum. 

2.  For  fattening  lambs  (weighing  about  50  pounds), 
on  full-feed,  feed  1  pound  of  concentrates  and  1|  pounds  of 
roughage  per  day. 

3.  For  fattening  sheep  (weighing  about  100  pounds), 
feed  Ij  pounds  of  concentrates  and  1  pound  of  roughage 
per  day. 

4.  For  pregnant  ewes  (weighing  about  150  pounds), 
feed  roughage  ad  libitum  until  ^\ithin  a  few  weeks  of  lamb- 
ing, then  feed  J  to  1  pound  of  concentrates  per  day. 

5.  For  ewes  wdth  suckling  lambs,  feed  IJ  pounds  of  con- 
centrates per  day  and  roughage  ad  libitum. 

Determining  the  Amount  of  Feed.  —  Accurate  feeding 
usually  requires  either  the  actual  weight  or  a  careful  estimate 
of  the  weight  of  the  ration  in  order  to  adapt  the  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  or  net  energy  to  the  actual  requirements 
of  the  animals  fed. 

In  feeding  large  lots  of  animals,  as  in  the  case  of  fattening 
cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep,  the  concentrates,  at  least,  may  be 
easily  weighed  by  the  wagon-load,  or  the  weight  may  ])e 
estimated  approximately  by  weighing  a  standard  measure 
of  them,  such  as  a  bushel  basket.     The  amount  of  roughage 


THE   COMPOUNDING    OF   RATIONS  113 

usually  may  be  estimated  approximately,  especially  after 
one  has  had  some  practice.  In  feeding  animals  individually, 
as  in  the  case  of  horses  and  dairy  cows,  the  weight  of  the 
concentrates  usually  can  be  closely  approximated  by  measur- 
ing the  amounts  fed.  In  case  of  a  mixture  of  two  or  more 
concentrates  being  fed,  definite  quantities  of  each  may  be 
weighed  and  mixed  in  such  quantity  as  to  last  for  some  time. 
Then  the  weight  of  a  standard  measure  {e.g.  one  quart) 
may  be  obtained,  and  the  amount  given  to  each  animal  esti- 
mated accordingly.  It  is  seldom  practicable  or  necessary 
to  weigh  individual  rations  on  the  farm.  However,  it  is 
well  to  check  up  the  amount  being  fed  by  occasionally  weigh- 
ing the  ration. 

Estimating  Weights  of  Concentrates.  —  Table  8  shows 
the  weight  of  one  quart,  and  the  measure  of  one  pound  of 
the  different  concentrates 

Other  rules  for  the  estimation  of  the  amount  of  grain  are 
as  foUow^s : 

1.  One  vertical  inch  wagon-box  measure  is  equivalent 
to  a  Uttle  more  than  one  bushel  of  ear  corn. 

2.  One  vertical  inch  wagon-box  measure  is  equivalent 
to  a  little  more  than  two  bushels  of  shelled  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  rye,  or  barley. 

3.  One  hundred  ears  of  corn  are  equivalent  approximately 
to  70  pounds  or  one  bushel. 

4.  Two  and  one-fourth  cubic  feet  in  the  crib  are  equivalent 
to  one  bushel  of  well-dried  ear  corn,  or  two  and  one-half 
cubic  feet  in  the  crib  are  equivalent  to  one  bushel  of  sappy 
ear  corn. 

5.  One  and  one-fourth  cubic  feet  in  the  crib  are  equivalent 
to  one  bushel  of  shelled  corn  or  other  grain. 

I 


114  PRIXCIPLES    OF  FEEDIXG   FARM  ANIMALS 

Table  8.  —  Average  Weights  of  Concentrates 


Feedingstuff 


One  Qt. 

One  Lb. 

Weighs 

Measures 

Lb. 

Qt. 

0.6 

1.7 

0.6 

1.7 

•  1.3 

0.8 

1.5 

0.7 

1.1 

0.9 

O.G 

1.7 

1.5 

0.7 

1.7 

0.6 

1.7 

0.6 

1.5 

0.7 

0.5 

2.0 

1.4 

0.7 

0.7 

1.4 

1.5 

0.7 

0.6 

1.2 

1.7 

0.6 

1.3 

0.8 

1.4 

0.7 

1.1 

0.9 

1.1 

0.9 

0.9 

1.1 

0.6 

1.7 

3.0 

0.3 

1.0 

1.0 

0.7 

1.4 

1.7 

0.6 

1.5 

0.7 

0.6 

1.8 

1.6 

0.6 

1.2 

0.8 

1.8 

0.6 

2.0 

0.5 

2.0 

0.5 

1.7 

0.5 

0.5 

2.0 

0.8 

1.3 

1.2 

0.8 

Alfalfa  meal 

Beet  pulp,  dried  .  .  .  . 
Buckwheat  middlings       .     . 

Barley,  whole 

Barley  meal 

Brewers'  dried  grains  .     .     . 

Coconut  meal 

Cowpeas 

Corn,  whole 

Corn,  meal 

Corn,  bran 

Corn  and  cob  meal  .  .  . 
Corn  and  oat  feed  .  .  .  , 
Cottonseed  meal  .  .  .  . 
Distillers'  dried  grains  .  . 
Gluten  meal  .     .     .    '.     .     . 

Gluten  feed 

Germ  meal 

Hominy  meal 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 
Linseed  meal,  new  process   . 

Malt  sprouts 

Molasses 

Oats,  whole 

Oats,  ground 

Rj^e,  whole 

Rye  meal 

Rye  bran 

Rye  middlings 

Rice  poHsh 

Soy  beans 

Skim  milk 

Wheat,  whole 

Wheat,  ground 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middHngs  (standard) 
Wheat  middlings  (flour)  .     . 


THE   COMPOUNDING    OF   RATIONS  115 

Estimating  Weights  of  Roughages.  —  Although,  as  pre- 
viously stated,  it  may  not  be  advisable  in  all  cases  to  regu- 
late the  amount  of  roughage,  yet  in  many  cases  one  needs  to 
know  approximately  how  much  roughage  will  be  consumed 
and  how  much  roughage  one  has  in  order  to  estimate  how 
many  animals  may  be  fed  from  the  roughage  on  the  farm. 

The  weights  of  loose  hay,  straw,  corn  fodder,  or  stover  are 
quite  difficult  to  estimate  with  any  degree  of  accuracy, 
although  after  a  little  practice  one  may  estimate  approxi- 
mately the  weights  of  small  amounts. 

Woll  1  presents  the  following  weights  of  different  sizes 
of  hay  bales : 

Dimensions,  inches  Weight,  lb. 

Smallbales.     .     .     .       jl^^l^^^^j 70  to  100 

Medium  bales  ...       I  jg  x  22  X  36^ 100  to  150 

Large  bales 22  X  28  X  46 150  to  225 

Ordinarily,  timothy  weighs  a  Httle  heavier  than  clover  or 
alfalfa. 

The  weight  of  hay  in  the  mow  may  be  estimated  approxi- 
mately, especially  if  the  mow  is  regular  in  shape  so  that  the 
cubic  content  may  be  obtained.  There  are  approximately 
590  cubic  feet  in  a  ton  of  hay  when  it  has  settled  less  than 
60  days.  After  the  hay  is  well  settled,  there  are  approxi- 
mately 512  cubic  feet  in  a  ton.  In  Wyoming  and  Idaho, 
well  settled  alfalfa  is  figured  at  512  cubic  feet  to  the  ton,  and 
timothy  and  clover  at  450  cubic  feet  to  the  ton. 

There  are  several  rules  for  estimating  the  amount  of  hay 
in  stacks  or  ricks  of  more  or  less  irregular  shape.     The  first 

1  "  Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,"  p.  103. 


116  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

and  most  difficult  step  is  to  determine  the  content  of 
the  stack  in  cubic  feet,  and  the  second  step  is  to  divide 
the  cubic  feet  in  the  stack  by  the  number  of  cubic  feet 
in  a  ton. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  ^  proposes 
the  following  rule  for  estimating  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in 
a  stack : 

V  =  FOWL 
where : 

r= volume  in  cubic  feet. 

0  =  distance  in  feet  over  the  stack  from  the  ground  on  one  side 
to  the  ground  on  the  other  side  at  a  point  directly  opposite. 

IF  =  width  in  feet  of  the  stack  at  the  ground. 

L  =  length  in  feet  of  the  stack  at  the  ground. 

F^a,  fraction  varying  from  0.25  to  0.37,  depending  upon  the 
shape  of  the  stack.  If  the  stack  is  low  and  nearly  triangu- 
lar, 0.25  should  be  used  ;  if  it  is  tall,  with  verv^  full  sides,  0.37 
should  be  used.  Any  number  in  between  these  two  may  be 
selected  which  seems  to  more  nearly  conform  with  the  shape 
of  the  stack. 

Of  course,  the  accuracy  of  this  method  depends  upon  the 
abihty  of  the  operator  to  select  the  proper  value  for  ''  F." 
Figure  23  shows  cross  sections  of  stacks  of  different  shapes 
and  corresponding  values  of  ''  F." 

In  Wyoming  and  Idaho,  the  following  formula  for  finding 
the  cubic  content  of  haystacks  is  legal : 


where : 


y  =  volume  in  cubic  feet. 
0  =  distance  over  the  stack  in  feet. 
IF  =  width  of  the  stack  in  feet. 
L  =  length  of  the  stack  in  feet. 

1  Cir.  131,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


THE    COMPOUNDING    OF   RATIONS 


117 


Fig.   23.  —  Cross  sections  of  haystacks  of  different  shapes  showing  the  cor- 
responding values  for  "  F."     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

In  New  Mexico  the  following  formula  is  used  : 
y  ^  OWL 


where : 


F=^  volume  in  cubic  feet. 
0  =  distance  over  the  stack  in  feet. 
Tr  =  width  of  the  stack  in  feet. 
L  =  length  of  the  stack  in  feet. 


118 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  9,  compiled  from  results  published  by  the  Iowa/ 
Nebraska,^  Missouri,^  and  Wisconsin  ^  Experiment  Stations, 
shows  the  approximate  capacities  of  silos  of  various  sizes. 

Table  9.  —  Capacity  of  Round  Silos 


Depth  of  sil 
in  feet 
20  ...  , 
23  .  .  . 
25  .... 
28  ...  , 
30  ...  , 
32  ...  , 
34  ...  . 
36  ...  , 
38  ...  . 
40  ...  . 
42  ...  . 
44  ...  . 
46  ...  . 
48  ...  . 
50  ...     . 


10   12 


26 
32 
36 
40 
44 
50 
53 
57 
65 


Inside 
14 


38 
45 

52 
61 

68 
72 
77 
82 
94 


70  101 


51 

60 

68 

81 

90 

95 

108 

114 

128 

138 

172 


diameter  of  silo,  in  feet 

16       18       20       22       24 
Expressed  in  tons 


26 


67  85  105  127  151  177 

82  103  128  154  184  216 

96  122  136  173  206  242 

108  137  160  205  245  285 

115  150  180  226  270  315 

126  162  200  248  295  346 

142  171  223  269  313  — 

158  194  230  290  341  — 

167  212  261  —  —  — 

180  229  281  —  —  — 

208  246  300  —  —  — 

—  264  320  —  —  — 

—  282  340  —  —  — 

—  299  361  —  —  — 

—  —  382  —  —  — 


One  bushel  of  silage  weighs  about  40  pounds. 
1  Bui.  141.  2  Bui.  138.  3  Bui.  103. 


*  Bui.  214. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  Balanced  Ration.  —  A  balanced  ration  is  a  ration 
which  contains  all  the  nutrients  in  such  proportions,  forms, 
and  amounts  as  will  nourish  properly,  and  without  excess  of 
any  nutrient,  a  .given  animal  for  one  day.  The  proportion 
refers  to  the  proportion  of  digestible  protein  to  the  digestible 
carbohydrates  and  fat,  as  indicated  by  the  nutritive  ratio. 
The  form  refers  to  the  character  or  bulk  of  the  ration  as 
indicated  by  the  amount  of  dry  substance.  Extended  study 
of  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  required  by  the  different 
farm  animals  for  the  various  purposes  for  which  they  are 
kept  has  led  to  the  formation  of  so-called  "  feeding 
standards." 

Feeding  Standards.  —  Theoretically,  feeding  standards 
may  be  looked  upon  as  formulas  which  tell  at  a  glance 
the  amount  of  each  nutrient  necessary  to  produce  a  given 
result.  In  practice,  however,  feeding  standards  cannot  be 
regarded  as  such.  In  the  first  place,  the  requirements  of 
farm  animals  for  different  purposes  have  not  been  deter- 
mined accurately  in  many  cases.  In  the  second  place,  the 
requirements  of  animals  of  the  same  species  are  not  con- 
stant, but  are  influenced  considerably  by  such  factors  as 
the  individuahty,  previous  feeding,  and  temperament  of 
the  animal,  temperature  and  other  weather  conditions,  etc. 
Thus,  no  two  animals  have  exactly  the  same  requirement, 

119 


120  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 

and  they  may  vary  considerably.  If  an  animal  is  fed  a 
light  ration  for  a  considerable  period  of  time,  it  is  probable 
that  its  requirements  are  lessened.  It  is  a  matter  of  com- 
mon-observation that  a  quiet,  lazy  animal  requires  less 
feed  than  a  nervous,  energetic  one,  and  that  animals  do 
better  in  certain  kinds  of  weather  than  in  other  kinds.  In 
the  third  place,  there  are  characteristics  of  feeds  other  than 
their  chemical  composition  and  energy  values  which  must 
be  considered  in  formulating  rations.  Theoretically,  one 
might  satisfy  the  requirements  of  a  feeding  standard  by 
using  feeds  which  in  actual  practice  would  not  give  satis- 
factory results.  In  the  fourth  place,  individual  feeds  often 
vary  considerably  from  the  average  chemical  composition  and 
energy  value  as  given  for  that  feed  in  the  generally  accepted 
tables.  Consequently,  then,  one  must  not  look  upon  the 
feeding  standard  as  a  hard  and  fast  rule  to  be  followed  at 
all  times,  but  only  as  a  guide  to  be  adapted  to  varying  condi- 
tions and  to  be  used  in  connection  with  one's  practical  knowl- 
edge of  the  amounts,  proportions,  and  combinations  of 
feeds  which  are  used  in  stockfeecUng.  Although  a  knowl- 
edge of  feeding  standards  is  not  essential  to  being  a  suc- 
cessful feeder  of  live  stock,  yet  such  a  knowledge  enables  the 
inexperienced  stockfeeder  to  learn  the  art  more  quickly,  at 
less  expense,  and  more  thoroughly  than  when  he  depends 
upon  experience  as  his  only  teacher.  There  have  been  a 
large  number  of  feeding  standards  proposed,  all  of  them 
having  more  or  less  value.  The  most  important  of  these 
will  be  taken  up  and  discussed. 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  Standard.  —  Probably  the  best 
known  and  most  widely  used  standards,  at  least  until  re- 
cently,  are  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  given  in  Table 


THE   FEED    REQUIREMENTS    OF  FARM   ANIMALS      121 

32  of  the  Appendix.  These  standards  cover  the  require- 
ments of  practically  all  classes  of  farm  animals  under  different 
conditions.  They  were  presented  first  by  Wolff,  a  noted 
German  student  of  animal  nutrition,  in  1864.  In  1896, 
they  were  revised  by  Lehmann,  and  since  have  been  called 
the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards,  or  sometimes  the  "  German 
standards."  The  latter  term,  however,  is  somewhat  mis- 
leading as  other  standards  also  have  been  presented  by 
German  investigators  in  animal  nutrition. 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  attempt  to  show  the 
requirements  of  farm  animals  under  different  conditions 
expressed  in  pounds  of  total  dry  substance,  digestible  crude 
protein,  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  digestible  fat  per 
1000  pounds  live  weight.  The  nutritive  ratio  required 
by  the  animal  is  given  also. 

The  formulation  of  a  ration,  according  to  any  feeding 
standard,  consists  essentially  of  three  steps.  (1)  Having 
given  the  requirements  for  an  animal  of  a  given  weight, 
usually  1000  pounds,  the  requirements  of  the  animal  under 
consideration  are  determined.  (2)  A  "  trial  ration  "  is 
assumed,  using  the  amounts  and  proportions  of  concentrates 
and  roughages  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  feeder,  are  satis- 
factory. (3)  The  trial  ration  is  modified  by  adding  or 
deducting  concentrates  or  roughages  of  such  composition 
as  to  furnish  approximately  the  required  amounts  of  dry 
substance,  digestible  protein,  digestible  carbohydrates,  di- 
gestible fat,  and  net  energy,  and  the  proper  nutritive  ratio. 

Thus,  for  example,  one  calculates  a  ration  according  to  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  standard  for  a  1200-pound  horse  at  light 
work  as  follows :  According  to  the  standard  (Table  32, 
Appendix),  the  requirements  of  a  1000-pound  horse  at  Ught 


122 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


work  are  as  follows :  dry  substance,  20  pounds ;  digestible 
protein,  1.5  pounds;  digestible  carbohydrates,  9.5  pounds; 
and  digestible  fat,  0.4  pounds.  The  ration  should  have  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  7.0.  The  first  step  is  to  calculate  the 
requirements  of  a  1200-pound  horse,  which  are  found  to  be 
as  follows:  dry  substance,  24  pounds;  digestible  protein, 
1.8  pounds;  digestible  carbohydrates,  11.4  pounds;  and 
cUgestible  fat,  0.5  pound.  The  second  step  is  to  assume  a 
trial  ration  which  will  meet  approximately  the  requirements 
as  determined  in  the  first  step.  From  the  amount  of  dry 
substance  required  and  from  practical  experience  (see  rule 
5,  page  109),  one  judges  that  a  ration  consisting  of  12  pounds 
of  oats  and  14  pounds  of  timothy  hay  will  not  be  far  amiss. 
Calculating  the  dry  substance  and  digestible  nutrients  of 
this  ration  from  Table  29  of  the  Appendix,  the  following 
results  are  obtained : 


Dry  Sub- 
stance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 
Fat 

Oats,  12  lb.       ... 
Hay,  14  lb.        ... 

Lb. 

10.7 
12.2 

Lb. 
1.1 

0.4 

Lb. 

6.2 
5.9 

Lb. 

0.5 
0.2 

Total  ration  .     . 

22.9 

1.5 

12.1 

0.7 

Comparing  the  nutrients  of  the  trial  ration  with  the  re- 
quirements of  the  standard,  it  is  seen  that  the  trial  ration 
is  a  little  below  the  standard  in  dry  substance  and  protein, 
and  a  little  above  it  in  carbohydrates  and  fat.  Thus  the 
third  step  is  to  modify  the  trial  ration  so  that  its  nutrients 
conform  to  the  standard.  Consequently,  a  feed  which  is 
high  in  protein  and  low  in  carbohydrates  should  be  sub- 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS     123 


stituted  for  part  of  the  ration.  Inasmuch  as  it  is  not  de- 
sirable to  lessen  the  bulk  of  the  ration,  one  may  substitute 
two  pounds  of  linseed  meal  for  two  pounds  of  the  oats  of  the 
ration.     The  ration  then  contains  the  following  nutrients : 


Dry  Sub- 
stance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 

Fat 

Oats,  10  lb 

Linseed  meal,  2  lb.     . 
Timothy  hay,  14  lb.  . 

Lh. 

8.9 

1.8 

12.2 

Lb. 

0.9 
0.6 
0.4 

Lb. 

5.2 
0.7 
5.9 

Lb. 

0.4 
0.1 
0.2 

Total  ration   .     . 

22.9 

1.9 

11.8 

0.7 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  H-^  +  (2.25  X  0.7)  ^^  ^  .  .  ^ 

J-  .y 

This  ration,  except  being  a  trifle  low  in  dry  substance,  comes 
very  close  to  satisfying  the  standard.  Of  course,  in  many 
cases,  especially  until  one  has  had  considerable  practice  in 
the  calculation  of  rations,  the  trial  ration  may  have  to  be 
modified  several  times  before  the  ration  conforms  with  the 
standard.  However,  by  applying  his  practical  knowledge 
and  the  rules  in  Chapter  VII,  the  student  should  not  have 
much  difficulty  in  calculating  balanced  rations. 

Other  rations  are  calculated  according  to  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  standard  in  the  same  general  manner.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  as  previously  mentioned, 
other  factors,  such  as  the  proportion  of  concentrates  to 
roughages,  the  general  practicabihty,  and  the  cost  of  the 
ration,  as  well  as  its  content  of  digestible  nutrients  also  must 
be  taken  into  consideration. 

In    view    of    modern   investigation,  certain  modifications 


124  PRINCIPLES    OP  FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 

must  be  made  to  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  to  adapt 
them  to  American  conditions.  In  practically  every  instance 
the  amount  of  dry  substance  prescribed  is  10  to  20  per  cent 
too  high.  The  protein  prescribed  is  from  10  to  40  per  cent 
too  high,  the  greatest  difference  being  in  the  cases  of  fatten- 
ing and  working  animals  and,  consequently,  the  nutritive 
ratio  is  too  narrow.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  early 
students  of  animal  nutrition  thought  that  fattening  and  work 
were  produced  largely  or  entirely  at  the  expense  of  the  pro- 
tein of  the  ration.  This  of  course  makes  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
standard  for  these  classes  of  animals  less  valuable.  But 
little  attention  should  be  given  to  the  fat  content  of  the 
ration,  it  being  considered  satisfactory  if  the  requirements 
for  protein  and  carbohydrates  are  fulfilled. 

Henry  and  Morrison  ^  have  recently  suggested  modifica- 
tions of  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  for  dairy  cows,  beef 
cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  hogs.  These  standards  attempt 
to  correct  the  objections  to  the  original  Wolff-Lehmann 
standards,  and  their  use  is  recommended  in  preference  to 
the  older  standards.  The  Henry-Morrison  standards  are 
given  in  Tal)le  33  of  the  Appendix. 

The  Armsby  Standard.  —  Perhaps  the  simplest  and  among 
the  most  accurate  standards  for  the  maintenance,  growth, 
and  fattening  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  those  presented  by 
Armsby  of  the  Pennsylvania  Station. ^  A  modification  of 
his  standard  for  dairy  cows  is  presented  by  Van  Norman.^ 
These  standards  are  based  principally  upon  the  work  of 
Armsby  in  this  country  and  upon  that  of  Kellner  in  Germany. 
They  are  given  in  Table  34  of  the  Appendix. 

1  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  pp.  134  and  669. 

2  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  346. 
s  Penn.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  114. 


THE   FEED    REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS      125 

The  Armsby  standards  express  the  requirements  of  farm 
animals  in  pounds  of  digestible  true  protein  (not  crude  pro- 
tein) and  in  therms  of  net  energy.  Instead  of  giving  separate 
standards  for  all  the  different  classes  of  farm  animals,  Armsby 
gives  standards  for  maintenance  and  for  growth.  Inasmuch 
as  any  excess  of  feed  above  maintenance  may  be  used  for 
fattening  or  milk  production,  he  gives  the  amount  of  nu- 
trients above  the  maintenance  requirements  necessary  to 
produce  a  pound  of  gain  or  a  pound  of  milk.  Thus,  the 
standards  for  fattening  and  for  milk  production  vary  with 
the  amount  of  gain  or  with  the  amount  of  milk  produced.  To 
determine  the  standard  for  a  fattening  animal,  one  adds  3.5 
therms  for  each  pound  of  daily  gain  to  the  energy  require- 
ment for  maintenance,  as  all  the  net  energy  above  the 
maintenance  requirement  may  be  used  for  the  production 
of  flesh  and  fat.  The  protein  requirement  of  an  immature 
fattening  animal  is,  according  to  Armsby,  the  same  as  that 
of  a  growing  animal  of  the  same  weight,  and  the  protein 
requirement  of  a  mature  fattening  animal  is  the  same  as 
the  protein  requirement  for  maintenance.  Armsby  recom- 
mends that  a  1000-pound  ruminant  should  receive  20  to 
30  pounds,  or  an  average  of  25  pounds,  of  dry  substance  per 
day.  A  horse  should  have  somewhat  less.  The  amounts 
of  digestible  true  protein  and  of  net  energy  in  the  common 
feedingstuffs  as  presented  by  Armsby  are  given  in  Table  31 
of  the  Appendix.  For  example,  if  one  desires  to  calculate 
a  ration  for  a  1000-pound  steer  gaining  two  pounds  per  day, 
the  first  step  is  to  determine  the  requirements.  From  Table 
34  of  the  Appendix,  it  is  seen  that  the  requirements  of  a 
1000-pound  steer  gaining  2  pounds  per  day  are  1.8  pounds  of 
digestible  protein  and  13.0  therms  of  net  energy.     As  the 


126 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


second  step,  we  will  assume  a  trial  ration  consisting  of  10 
pounds  of  corn  and  8  pounds  of  clover  hay.  Referring  to 
Table  31  of  the  Appendix,  it  is  found  that  the  digestible 
protein  and  net  energy  in  this  ration  are  as  follows : 


Dry 

Substance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Net 
Energy 

Corn,  10  lb 

Clover  hay,  8  lb 

Lb. 

8.91 

6.78 

Lb. 

0.68 
0.43 

Therms 

8.88 
2.78 

Total  ration 

15.69 

1.11 

11.66 

Comparing  the  trial  ration  with  the  standard,  we  find  that 
it  is  low  in  both  protein  and  energy.  As  the  third  step,  we 
will  add  2  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  as  it  is  high  in  both 
protein  and  energy.  The  ration  then  contains  the  following 
nutrients : 


Dry 

Substance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Net 
Energy 

Corn,  10  lb 

Clover  hay,  8  lb 

Cottonseed  meal,  2  lb.      .     . 

Lb. 

8.91 
6.78 
1.84 

Lb. 

0.68 
0.43 
0.70 

Therms 

8.88 

2.78 

1.68 

Total  ration 

17.53 

1.81 

13.34 

This  ration,  although  a  trifle  low  in  dry  substance,  ful- 
fills the  requirements  of  the  Armsby  standard. 

In  calculating  a  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  according  to  the 


THE   FEED    REQUIREMENTS    OF  FARM  ANIMALS      127 

Armsby  standard,  one  adds  to  the  requirements  for  mainte- 
nance, 0.05  pound  of  digestible  protein  and  0.3  therm  of  net 
energy  for  each  pound  of  4  per  cent  milk  produced.  For 
example,  one  wishes  to  calculate  a  ration  for  a  900-pound 
cow  giving  22  pounds  of  approximately  4  per  cent  milk. 
According  to  Table  34  of  the  Appendix,  the  requirement  is 
as  follows : 


Digestible 
Protein 

Net 
Energy 

Lb. 

For  maintenance  of  900-lb.  cow      ...           0.45 
Addition  for  22  lb.  of  milk. 1.10 

Therms 

5.7 

6.6 

Total  requirement 

1.55 

12  3 

As  a  trial  ration,  we  will  assume  3  pounds  of.  ground  corn, 
40  pounds  of  corn  silage,  and  15  pounds  of  clover  h:.iy. 
This  ration  contains  the  following  nutrients : 


Dry  Sub- 
stance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Net 
Energy 

Ground  corn,  3  lb. 

Corn  silage,  40  lb.       ... 

Clover  hay,  15  lb.       ... 

Lb. 

2.7 
10.2 
12.7 

Lb. 

0.20 

0.48 
0.81 

Therms 
2.7 

6.6 
5.2 

Total  ration    .... 

25.6                1.49 

1 

14.5 

Obviously  this  ration  is  too  high  in  dry  substance  and  energy. 
Consequently,  10  pounds  of  silage  are  deducted  from  the 
ration,  which  then  has  the  following  composition: 


128 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


Dry  Sub-      '     Digestible 
STANCE                Protein 

1 

Net 
Energy 

Corn  sUage,  30  lb.       ... 
Clover  hay.  15  lb.       ... 
Ground  corn,  3  lb.      .     .     . 

Lb. 

7.6 

12.7 

2.7 

Lb. 
0.36 
0.81 
0.20 

Therms 

4.9 
5.2 
2.7 

Total  ration    .... 

23.0 

1.37 

12.8 

This  ration  is  low  in  protein  but  about  right  in  energy. 
Consequenth^  a  pound  of  linseed  meal  is  substituted  for  a 
pound  of  the  ground  corn,  as  the  Unseed  meal  contains  con- 
siderably more  protein  and  about  the  same  amount  of  energy 
as  corn.     The  ration  is  as  follows : 


Dry 
Substance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Net 
Energy 

Corn  silage,  30  lb 

Clover  hay,  15  lb 

Linseed  meal,  1  lb 

Ground  corn,  2  lb 

Lb. 

7.6 

12.7 

0.9 

1.8 

Lb. 

0.36 
0.81 
0.28 
0.13 

Therms 

4.9 
5.2 
0.8 
1.8 

Total  ration 

23.0 

1.58 

12.7 

This  ration  satisfactorily  fulfills  the  Armsby  standard. 

Van  Norman  ^  has  proposed  a  modification  of  the  Armsby 
standard  for  dairy  cows  by  taking  into  account  the  quality 
as  well  as  the  quantity  of  the  milk.  For  every  variation  of 
0.1  per  cent  from  a  standard  fat  content  of  4  per  cent,  the 
amount  of  cUgestible  protein  is  increased  or  decreased,  as 
the  case  may  be,  0.0005  lb.,  and  the  energy,  0.008  therm. 


1  Peiin.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  114. 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS      129 


Thus  one  calculates  the  requirements  for  a  1250  pound  cow 
giving  40  pounds  of  3.5  per  cent  milk  as  follows  : 


Digestible 
Protein 

Net 
Energy 

To  produce  1  lb.  of  4  percent  milk  .... 
Deduct  for  decrease  of  0.5  per  cent  in  fat 

Lb. 

0.0500 
0.0025 

Therms 

0.30 
0.04 

To  produce  1  lb.  of  3.5  per  cent  milk    .     .     . 

0.0475 

0.26 

To  produce  40  lb.  of  3.5  per  cent  milk  .     .     . 
To  maintain  a  1250-lb.  cow 

1.9 

0.6 

10.4 
7.0 

Total  reauirement   . 

2.5 

17.4 

The  ration  is  then  formulated  in  the  usual  manner. 

Other  Standards.  —  Inasmuch  as  a  considerable  number 
of  feeding  standards  have  been  proposed,  and  as  a  number 
of  investigations  upon  the  requirements  of  farm  animals  for 
different  purposes  have  been  reported  recently,  it  may  be  of 
value  to  discuss  some  of  them. 

Requirements  for  Maintenance.  —  A  maintenance  ration 
is  one  just  sufficient  to  prevent  any  loss  or  gain  of  tissues 
in  the  animal  body  when  there  is  no  production.  Theoreti- 
cally a  maintenance  ration  supplies  just  enough  digestible  pro- 
tein to  furnish  the  necessary  amino  acids  for  the  repair  of 
the  protein  tissues  of  the  body,  and  just  enough  net  energy 
to  carry  on  the  vital  processes.  It  supplies  the  quantity  of 
feed  necessary  to  simply  support  the  animal  when  doing  no 
work  and  when  yielding  no  material  product.  Although  in 
practical  feeding  simple  maintenance  is  usually  (though  not 
always)  avoided,  nevertheless  a  knowledge  of  the  mainte- 
nance requirement  is  necessary  in  order  to  use  many  of  the 

K 


ir>o 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


feeding  standards,  especially  those  for  fattening  animals 
and  those  for  milk  production.  Considerable  work  has  been 
done  upon  the  maintenance  requirement  of  cattle,  while 
but  Uttle  has  been  done  upon  that  of  other  farm  animals. 
After  a  careful  study  of  the  experiments  upon  this  subject, 
it  seems  that  the  averages  given  in  Table  10  represent  the 
maintenance  requirement  of  the  farm  animals  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy. 

Table  10. — Maintenance  Requirements  of  Farm  Animals 


Live 
Weight 

DlGES- 

Digestible 

Diges- 

Total 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

tible 
Fat 

Nutri- 
ment' 

Net 
Energy 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb.  . 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Therms 

Cattle    .     .     . 

1000 

0.6 

7.0 

0.1 

8.0 

6.5 

Horses  .     .     . 

1000 

0.6 

— 

— 

— 

7.0 

Sheep     . 

100 

0.07 

— 

^ 

— 

0.9 

Hogs      .     .     . 

100 

0.08 

0.3  to  0.4 

0.3 

0.54 

1.2 

Requirements  for  Growth.  —  Growth  consists  of  an  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  the  muscles,  bones,  organs,  etc.,  of  the 
body.  Thus  growth  is  essentially  an  increase  in  the  amount 
of  protein  tissue  of  the  body,  although  some  fat  will  also 
be  formed,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  amount  and 
nature  of  the  ration.  The  principal  sources  of  the  protein 
tissue  are  the  protein  and  mineral  matter  of  the  feed.  The 
rate  of  growth  in  the  young  animal  is  quite  high,  but  de- 
creases as  the  animal  becomes  older.  In  the  mature  animal 
practically  all  growth  is  confined  to  the  skin,  hair,  hoofs, 
and  horns.     Consequently,   the  younger  an   animal  is  the 

•  Dif^estible  protein  plu.s  digestible  carbohydrates  plus  2.25  times  digest- 
ible fat. 


THE   FEED    REQUIREMENTS    OF  FARM  ANIMALS      131 

more  protein  there  should  be  in  the  ration,  the  amount  de- 
creasing with  the  age  of  the  animal  until  it  reaches  maturity. 
Thus  especial  attention  should  be  given  to  the  protein  con- 
tent of  the  rations  of  all  growing  animals,  remembering  that 
it  is  better  to  feed  a  little  too  much  protein  than  not  enough. 
In  addition  to  the  quantity  of  protein,  the  quahty  of  the 
protein  should  also  be  considered,  in  order  to  make  sure  that 
the  ration  is  not  deficient  in  any  of  the  essential  amino  acids. 

If  the  animals  are  to  be  used  for  meat  or  work,  especial 
emphasis  need  not  be  laid  upon  the  carbohydrates  and  fat 
or  energy  content  of  the  growing  ration,  so  long  as  it  is 
sufficient.  However,  if  they  are  to  be  used  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, care  should  be  taken  to  limit  the  amounts  of  carbohy- 
drates and  fat  of  the  ration,  or  the  animals  may  become  so 
fat  as  to  produce  barrenness.  This  is,  often  the  case  with 
show  animals  which  have  become  too  fat. 

Mineral  matter,  especially  calcium  and  phosphorus,  is 
absolutely  essential  to  the  proper  development  of  the  growing 
animal.  Ordinarily,  except  sometimes  in  the  case  of  pigs, 
a  properly  balanced  ration  will  contain  sufficient  phosphorus, 
as  most  of  the  nitrogenous  feeds  are  high  in  phosphorus. 
If  a  legume  hay  is  fed,  there  probably  will  be  sufficient 
calcium  in  the  ration.  Otherwise  additional  calcium  or 
phosphorus  must  be  supplied  by  adding  feeds  which  are  rich 
in  these  elements.  In  case  of  pigs,  it  is  usually  considered 
good  practice  to  allow  them  free  access  to  a  mineral  mixture. 
(See  page  79). 

Haecker,  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,^  after 
many  years  of  experimentation,  proposes  the  following  table 
as  expressing  the  requirements  of  growing  fattening  cattle. 

1  Unpublished  data. 


132 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  11.  —  Haecker's  Standard  for  Growing  Fattening 

(Battle 

Dry  substance  and  digestible  nutrients  daily  per  1000  lb.  live  weight 


Live 

Total  Dry 

Digestible 

Digestible 

Digestible 

Weight 

Substance 

Crude  Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

100 

12.8 

2.90 

5.5 

3.00 

200 

21.8 

3.05 

11.6 

0.55 

300 

24.2 

2.43 

12.4 

0.63 

400 

22.1 

1.97 

11.1 

0.60 

500 

21.7 

1.90 

11.1 

0.60 

600 

21.1 

1.85 

10.8 

0.60 

700 

20.5 

1.81 

10.4 

0.54 

800 

19.5 

1.80 

10.0 

0.52 

900 

18.4 

1.80 

9.4 

0.50 

1000 

17.9 

1.64 

9.5 

0.48 

1100 

16.5 

1.43 

9.1 

0.44 

1200 

15.7 

1.40 

8.8 

0.46 

This  standard  supplies  less  protein  and  other  nutrients 
than  the  Henry-Morrison,  the  Wolff-Lehmann  and  the 
Armsby  standards  for  growing  cattle.  Experiments  at  the 
Illinois  Experiment  Station  ^  by  Mumford,  Grindley,  Hall, 
Emmett,  Bull  and  AlUson,  show  that  two-year  old  steers 
may  be  successfully  fattened  on  less  protein  than  provided 
by  the  Haecker  standard. 

Investigations  at  the  lUinois  Experiment  Station  by  Bull 
and  Emmett  indicate  that  the  Wolff-Lehmann  and  Armsby 
standards  for  growing  lambs  are  too  high  in  protein.  The 
standard  for  protein  given  in  Table  12  is  recommended  by 
them.2 

1  Unpublished  data. 

2  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  166. 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS      133 

Table  12.    Protein  Requirements  of  Growing  Lambs 
(Bull  and  Emmett) 


Weight  of  Lamb 

Digestible  Crude  Protein 
PER  100  Pounds 

Lb. 

50-  70 

70-  90 

90-100 

110-150 

Lb. 

0.32 
0.27 
0.23 
0.17 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  standard  for  carbohydrates  and  fat, 
and  the  Armsby  standard  for  energy  may  be  accepted  as 
approximately  correct. 

Dietrich/  formerly  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station, 
suggests  the  standard  given  in  Table  13  for  growing  pigs 
which  are  to  be  used  for  breeding  purposes. 

Table  13. —  Requirements  of  Growing  Hogs  (Dietrich) 


Age  of  Pigs 

Digestible  Protein 
PER  100  Lb. 
Live  Weight 

Digestible  Carbohy- 
drates PER  100  Lb. 
Live  Weight 

8  weeks 

15  weeks 

19  weeks     

26  weeks 

30  weeks 

38  weeks 

2  years 

Lb. 

0.50 
0.55 
0.45 
0.50 
0.35 
0.40 
0.20 

Lb. 

2.2 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 

The  Henry-Morrison  standards  in  Table  33  of  the  Appendix 
are  quite  valuable.     In  calculating  rations  for  hogs,  it  is 

1  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir.  126,  133,  and  153. 


134  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

recommended  that  Table  30  of  the  Appendix  be  used  as 
representing  the  digestible  nutrients  in  the  feeds. 

Savage  and  Henry  and  Morrison  have  presented  standards 
for  growing  horses.  The  Henry-Morrison  standard  is 
given  in  Table  33  of  the  Appendix.  According  to  Savage  ^ 
growing  horses  from  6  months  to  2 J  years  of  age  should  receive 
18  pounds  of  dry  substance,  1.7  pounds  of  digestible  protein, 
and  12.0  pounds  of  total  nutriment  per  1000  pounds  Hve 
weight.     The  ration  should  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  : 6.1. 

Requirements  for  Pregnant  Animals.  —  The  development 
of  the  foetus  in  the  dam  requires  protein  and  mineral  matter. 
Hence  the  ration  of  the  mature  pregnant  animal  should  con- 
tain protein  and  mineral  matter  in  addition  to  the  mainte- 
nance requirements.  In  case  of  a  young  pregnant  animal, 
which  is  still  growing,  additional  protein  and  mineral  matter 
above  the  ordinary  requirements  must  be  supphed  or  the 
foetus  will  be  only  imperfectly  developed  at  the  expense 
of  the  tissues  of  the  dam.  If  the  pregnant  animal  is  pro- 
ducing milk,  or  is  working,  in  addition  to  carrying  a  foetus, 
additional  energy  as  well  as  protein  and  mineral  matter 
should  be  supplied.  For  example,  a  mare  which  is  bred,  is 
suckUng  a  foal,  and  is  doing  ordinary  farm  work  should  have 
a  ration  containing  more  protein  and  energy  than  the  mare 
or  gelding  which  is  working  only. 

Requirements  for  mature  breeding  ewes,  mature  brood 
sows,  and  mature  brood  mares  doing  no  work  are  given  by 
the  Wolff-Lehmann  and  Henry-Morrison  standards.  In 
feeding  breeding  animals  care  should  be  taken  not  to  get 
them  too  fat,  as  this  often  produces  barrenness  in  the  female 
and  steriUty  in  the  male. 

1  Cornell  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  321. 


THE  FEED    REQUIREMENTS    OF  FARM  ANIMALS      135 

Requirements  for  Fattening.  —  Fattening  consists  of  a 
storage  of  animal  fat  in  X\\v  cells  of  the  various  tissues  of  the 
body,  especially  in  the  tissues  of  the  abdominal  cavity  and  in 
the  connective  tissues  just  under  the  skin  and  between  the 
muscles. 

In  the  practical  feeding  of  animals  intended  for  meat 
production  it  is  difficult  and  unnecessary  to  draw  any  sharp 
line  between  growth  and  fattening,  especially  in  view  of 
the  increasing  tendency  to  fatten  and  market  cattle  and 
hogs  before  they  are  mature.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
if  the  ration  contains  a  surplus  of  nutrients  above  the  re- 
quirements of  the  animal  for  maintenance  and  growth,  the 
surplus  up  to  a  certain  hmit  may  be  used  for  the  production 
of  fat. 

We  have  learned  that  the  principal  sources  of  body  fat 
are  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  of  the  feed,  although  any 
surplus  of  protein  in  the  ration  may  serve  also  for  the  pro- 
duction of  fat.  Consequently,  in  feeding  fattening  animals, 
the  amount  of  protein  in  the  ration  is  of  major  importance, 
while  the  amount  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  or  of  energy  is 
of  minor  importance,  as  long  as  enough  of  them  is  supplied. 
Inasmuch  as  the  most  rapid  fattening  is  usually  the  cheapest 
fattening,  a  practical  method  of  formulating  the  rations  of 
fattening  animals  is  to  fulfill  the  protein  requirement  and 
then  give  them  all  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  they  will 
consume. 

The  idea  of  the  amount  of  protein  required  for  fattening 
has  undergone  considerable  modification  within  the  last 
few  years.  The  idea  of  the  older  investigators  in  animal 
nutrition  regarding  the  production  of  body  fat  was  that  the 
protein  of  the  feed  was  its  sole  source.     Consequently,  the 


136  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

amounts  of  protein  supplied  by  some  of  the  older  feeding 
standards,  such  as  the  WolfT-Lehmann,  are  greatly  exag- 
gerated. The  results  of  more  modern  investigations  indicate 
that,  in  the  case  of  immature  animals,  no  more  protein  is  re- 
quired for  fattening  than  for  growth.  Hence,  no  more  protein 
is  recommended  for  immature  fattening  animals  than  for  grow- 
ing animals.  But  little  more  protein  is  required  for  fattening 
mature  animals  than  for  the  maintenance  of  such  animals, 
provided  the  excess  of  carbohydrates  does  not  cause  a  de- 
crease in  the  digestibiUty  of  the  ration.  It  has  already 
been  explained  that  if  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  is 
wider  than  1  to  10  or  12,  the  digestibihty  will  be  decreased. 

For  fattening  immature  cattle  no  more  protein  is  recom- 
mended than  is  suppUed  by  the  standards  for  growing  cattle. 
The  Henry-Morrison  and  the  Haecker  standards  for  growing, 
fattening  steers  are  probably  not  far  from  the  truth.  In- 
vestigations with  fattening  mature  cattle  indicate  that  1.0 
11).  of  digestible  crude  protein  per  1000  pounds  live  weight 
is  sufficient. 

For  the  energy,  carbohydrate,  and  fat  requirements  of 
fattening  cattle,  we  can  do  no  better  than  recommend 
the  Armsby,  Wolff-Lehmann,  Henry-Morrison,  or  Haecker 
standards. 

Late  experiments  indicate  that  0.15  pound  or  even  less 
of  digestible  crude  protein  per  100  pounds  live  weight  is 
sufficient  for  mature  fattening  sheep.  For  fattening  lambs. 
Bull  and  Emmett  ^  recommend  the  same  standard  for 
protein  as  given  in  Table  12  for  growing  lambs.  From  1.8 
to  2.0  therms  of  net  energy  per  100  pounds  live  weight  should 
be  sufficient  for  fattening. 

1  III.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  1G6. 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS      137 

Dietrich  ^  recommends  the  standard  for  fattening  market 
hogs  given  in  Table  14. 

Table  14.  —  Requirements  of  Fattening  Hogs  (Dietrich) 


Age  of  Hogs 

Digestible  Protein  per 

100  Lb.  Live  Weight 

Weeks 

Lb. 

8 

0.60 

15 

0.70 

19 

0.60 

26 

0.65 

30 

0.30 

According  to  Dietrich  they  should  have  2.4  lb.  of  digestible 
carbohydrates  per  100  pounds  live  weight  at  the  beginning 
of  the  feeding  period.  This  amount  is  increased  gradually  to 
2.8  pounds.  After  this  they  are  kept  just  below  full-feed.  A 
little  more  fat  than  is  found  in  the  ordinary  farm  rations  is 
recommended  by  Dietrich. 

As  in  the  case  of  fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  the  protein 
requirements  of  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standard  for  fattening 
hogs  are  too  high.  Their  protein  requirement  for  growing 
breeding  stock,  and  the  amounts  of  carbohydrates  and  fat 
as  prescribed  by  their  standard  for  growing  and  fattening 
hogs  probably  represent  approximately  the  requirements  of 
fattening  hogs.  The  Henry-Morrison  standards  for  fatten- 
ing pigs  also  are  quite  valuable. 

Requirements  for  Work.  —  The  idea  of  the  early  investiga- 
tors in  animal  nutrition  was  that  the  protein  was  the  source 
of  muscular  work,  consequently  the  old  standards,  such  as 
the  Wolff-Lehmann,  are  too  high  in  this  nutrient.     Inasmuch 

1  in.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir.  126,  133,  and  153. 


138  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

as  work  is  done  at  the  expense  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats 
of  the  ration,  theoreticall}'  the  amount  of  protein  suppHed 
for  the  maintenance  of  a  horse  should  be  sufficient  for  the 
same  horse  when  doing  work,  as  work  is  done  primarily 
at  the  expense  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  of  the  feed,  the 
protein  not  being  drawn  upon  as  long  as  the  other  nutrients 
are  present  in  sufficient  amounts.  However,  in  actual 
practice,  usually  it  is  desirable  to  feed  more  protein  than  the 
maintenance  requirement,  because,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
a  ration  with  a  very  \\ade  nutritive  ratio  is  not  as  thoroughly 
digested  as  one  containing  more  protein.  Kellner  states 
that  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  : 8  or  1  :  10  is  sufficient  to  prevent 
any  decrease  in  the  digestibility  of  the  ration. 

The  requirements  for  mature  work  horses  are  given  in 
the  Wolff-Lehmann,  the  Henry-Morrison,  and  the  Kellner 
standards.  For  convenience,  we  have  followed  the  custom 
of  Armsby  and  expressed  the  Kellner  standard  in  terms  of 
digestible  protein  and  net  energy.  The  Kellner  standard 
for  a  1000-lb.  horse,  thus  expressed,  is  given  in  Table  15. 

Table  15.  —  Requirements  of  Work  Horses  (Kellner) 


Total  Dry         Digestible 
Substance  Protein 


i            Lb.  Lb. 

Light  work 18-23  1.2 

Medium  work 21-26  1.6 

Heavy  work 23-28  2.2 


Net 
Energy 


Thrrm.'i 
9  8 

12.4 
16.0 


Any  of  these  standards  should  be  valuable. 

H  should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  on  account  of  his  limited 
digestive  capacity,   the  horse,   especially  when  doing  hard 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS     139 

work,  can  handle  but  a  relatively  small  amount  of  roughage. 
Hence,  the  greater  part  of  the  energy  should  be  furnished 
in  the  form  of  concentrates. 

Horses  which  have  not  completed  their  growth  and  horses 
which  have  a  large  amount  of  work  to  do  in  a  short  time,  as 
racing  and  driving  horses,  should  have  larger  amounts  of 
protein  than  those  prescribed. 

Requirements  for  Milk  Production.  —  The  average  chemi- 
cal composition  of  milk  is  as  follows:  water,  87.1  per  cent; 
ash,  0.7  per  cent ;  protein,  3.2  per  cent ;  fat,  3.9  per  cent ;  and 
carbohydrates  (milk  sugar),  5.1  per  cent.  As  the  animal 
organism  does  not  have  the  power  to  construct  protein  from 
carbohydrates  and  fats,  the  protein  of  the  feed  is  the  sole 
source  of  the  milk  protein.  However,  the  fat  of  the  feed 
is  not  the  sole  source  of  the  milk  fat,  as  cows  may  produce 
normal  amounts  of  butter  fat  on  a  ration  containing  only 
traces  of  fat.  It  is  probable  that  the  carbohydrates,  fats, 
and  any  surplus  of  protein  in  the  feed  may  all  be  used  for 
the  production  of  milk  sugar  and  butter  fat,  although  their 
principal  source  is  the  carbohydrates  of  the  feed. 

In  formulating  a  standard  for  milk  production,  not  only 
the  weight  of  the  cow  but  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
milk  should  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  requirement 
for  maintenance  of  course  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  cow, 
while  the  requirement  above  maintenance  varies  with  the 
amount  and  richness  of  the  milk,  i.e.  the  percentage  of  fat 
which  it  contains. 

The  requirements  for  dairy  cattle  have  been  determined 
more  accurately  than  those  of  any  other  class  of  animals. 
Among  the  more  recent  investigators  who  have  studied  the 
requirements  for  milk  production  are  Armsby  and  Van  Nor- 


140 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


man,  whose  standards  have  been  discussed,  Haecker,  Savage, 
Woll  and  Humphrey,  and  Eckles. 

The  Haecker  standard  for  dairy  cows  has  been  developed 
by  Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  ^  during 
many  years  of  experimentation.  He  holds  that  the  feed 
requirements  of  the  dairy  cow  vary  not  only  according  to 
her  weight  and  the  quantity  of  the  milk  yield,  but  also  ac- 
cording to  the  quahty  of  the  milk. 

According  to  Haecker,  a  1000-pound  cow  requires  for 
maintenance  0.7  lb.  of  digestible  crude  protein,  7.0  lb.  of 
digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.1  lb.  of  digestible  fat.  For 
each  pound  of  4  per  cent  milk  the  Haecker  standard  requires 
the  addition  of  0.054  lb.  of  digestible  crude  protein,  0.24 
lb.  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.021  lb.  of  digestible 
fat  in  addition  to  the  maintenance  requirement.  If  the 
milk  contains  less  than  4.0  per  cent  of  fat,  smaller  amounts 
of  nutrients  are  prescribed,  while  if  the  milk  contains  more 
than  4.0  per  cent  fat,  larger  amounts  of  nutrients  are  pre- 
scribed. The  amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  to  produce 
one  pound  of  milk  containing  various  percentages  of  butter 
fat  are  given  in  Table  16. 

Table  16. — Haecker's  Standard  for  Milk  Production 


Fat  in  Milk 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Per  Cent 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

2.5 

0.0446 

0.176 

0.0151 

2.6 

.0451 

.180 

.0155 

2.7 

.0455 

.185 

.0159 

2.8 

.0460 

.190 

.0163 

2.9 

.0464 

.194 

.0166 

3.0 

.0469 

.199 

.0170 

3.1 

.0474 

.203 

.0174 

1  Bui.  130,  140. 


THE  FEED    REQVIREyfENTS    OF  FARM  ANIMALS      141 

Table   16.  —  Haecker's  Standard  for  Milk  Production 

{Continued) 


Fat  in  Milk 

Pkotein 

CAaSOHTDRATES 

Fat 

Per  Cent 

Lh. 

Lh. 

Lb. 

3.2 

.0478 

.207 

.0178 

3.3 

.0483 

.212 

.0181 

3.4 

.0486 

.216 

.0185 

3.5 

.0492 

.221 

.0189 

3.6 

.0501 

.225 

.0193 

3.7 

.0511 

.220 

.0196 

3.8 

.0520 

.234 

.0200 

3.9 

.0530 

.238 

.0204 

4.0 

.0539 

.242 

.0208 

4.1 

.0546 

.247 

.0211 

4.2 

.0553 

.251 

.0215 

4.3 

.0558 

.255 

.0218 

4.4 

.0565 

.260 

.0222 

4.5 

.0572 

.264 

.0226 

4.6 

.0579 

.268 

.0230 

4.7 

.0584 

.272 

.0233 

4.8 

.0591 

.276 

.0236 

4.9 

.0597 

.280 

.0240 

5.0 

.0604 

.284 

.0243 

5.1 

.0611 

.288 

.0247 

5.2 

.0618 

.291 

.0250 

5.3 

.0625 

.295 

.0253 

5.4 

.0632 

.299 

.0256 

5.5 

.0639 

.302 

.0259 

5.6 

.0644 

.307 

.0263 

5.7 

.0651 

.310 

.0266 

5.8 

.0656 

.314 

.0269 

5.9 

.0663 

.318 

.0273 

6.0 

.0668 

.322 

.0276 

6.1 

.0679 

.326 

.0279 

6.2 

.0689 

.330 

.0283 

6.3 

.0700 

.334 

.0286 

6.4 

.0710 

.338 

.0289 

6.5 

.0721 

.342 

.0293 

6.6 

.0724 

.345 

.0296 

6.7 

.0728 

.349 

.0299 

6.8 

.0731 

.353 

.0302 

6.9 

.0735 

.357 

.0305 

7.0 

.0738 

.359 

.0308 

142 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


For  example,  to  calculate  a  ration  according  to  the  Haecker 
standard  for  a  900-pound  cow,  giving  20  pounds  of  milk 
daily  containing  5  per  cent  of  butter  fat,  the  process  is  as 
follows:  (1)  determine  the  maintenance  requirement  for  a 
900-pound  cow ;  (2)  add  to  the  maintenance  requirement  the 
requirement  to  produce  20  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk;  and 
(3)  calculate  a  ration  to  conform  with  this  standard.  Thus 
a  cow  weighing  900  pounds  requires  0.63  lb.  of  digestible 
protein,  6.30  lb.  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.09  lb. 
of  digestible  fat  for  maintenance.  According  to  Haecker, 
to  produce  one  pound  of  5  per  cent  milk  requires  the  con- 
sumption of  0.060  lb.  of  digestible  crude  protein,  0.28  lb. 
of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.024  lb.  of  digestible  fat, 
in  addition  to  the  maintenance  requirement.  Thus  the 
total  requirement  to  produce  20  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk 
is  calculated  as  follows : 


Digestible 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 
Fat 

For  maintenance 

To  produce  20  lb.  of  5  per  cent  milk 

Lb. 

0.63 
1.22 

Lb. 

6.30 
5.60 

Lb. 

0.09 
0.50 

Total 

1.85 

11.90 

0.59 

The  ration  is  then  calculated  in  the  same  manner  as  de- 
scribed under  the  discussion  of  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards. 
The  Savage  Standard  for  Dairy  Cows.  —  Savage,  at  the 
Cornell  University  Experiment  Station,^  after  extensive 
experiments,  suggests  the  following  standard  for  the  mainte- 

»  Bui.  32::, 


THE   FEED    REQUIREMENTS    OF   FARM  ANIMALS      143 

nance  of  a  1000-pound  cow:  digestible  protein,  0.7  lb.,  and 
total  nutriment  {i.e.  digestible  protein  plus  digestible  car- 
bohydrates plus  2.25  times  digestible  fat),  7.925  lb.  To 
produce  1  pound  of  milk  of  varying  degrees  of  richness,  he 
suggests  the  addition  of  digestible  protein  and  total  nutri- 
ment as  given  in  Table  17. 


Table  17.  —  Savage's  Standard  for 

Milk  Production 

Fat  in  Milk 

Digestible  Protein       Total  Nutriment 

Per  Cent 

Lb. 

Lh. 

2.5 

0.0527 

0.2574 

2.6 

.0535 

.2629 

2.7 

.0543 

.2685 

2.8 

.0551 

.2743 

2.9 

.0559 

.2812 

3.0 

.0567 

.2870 

3.1 

.0575 

.2928 

3.2 

.0583 

.2987 

3.3 

.0591 

.3055 

3.4 

.0599 

.3115 

3.5 

.0608 

.3185 

3.6 

.0616 

.3243 

3.7 

.0624 

.3312 

3.8 

.0632 

.3369 

3.9 

.0640 

.3428 

4.0 

.0648 

.3497 

4.1 

.0656 

.3555 

4.2 

.0664 

.3612 

4.3 

.0672 

.3671 

4.4 

.0680 

.3729 

4.5 

.0689 

.3787 

4.6 

.0697 

.3842 

4.7 

.0705 

.3890 

4.8 

.0713 

.3945 

4.9 

.0721 

.3992 

5.0 

.0729 

.4048 

5.1 

.0737 

.4105 

5.2 

.0745 

.4150 

144 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


Table   17.  —  Savage's  Standard  for  Milk  Production 

{Continued) 


Fat  in  Milk 


Digestible  Protein 


Total  Nutriment 


Per  Cent 

Lb. 

Lb. 

5.3 

.0753 

.4209 

5.4 

.0761 

.4253 

5.5 

.0770 

.4311 

5.6 

.0778 

.4355 

5.7 

.0786 

.4413 

5.8 

.0794 

.4469 

5.9 

.0802 

.4517 

6.0 

.0810 

.4572 

6.1 

.0818 

.4619 

6.2 

.0826 

.4676 

6.3 

.0834 

.4721 

6.4 

.0842 

.4791 

6.5 

.0851 

.4835 

6.6 

.0859 

.4882 

6.7 

.0867 

.4926 

6.8 

.0875 

.4984 

6.9 

.0883 

.5040 

7.0 

.0891 

.5075 

Concerning  this  standard,  Savage  makes  the  following 
statement :  ''  The  writer  would  further  recommend  that  a 
cow  be  fed  according  to  this  standard  when  her  conchtion  has 
become  normal  after  calving.  Then  the  grain  ration  should 
be  increased  1  pound  per  day  and  the  cow  watched  closely 
for  one  week,  a  careful  record  being  kept  of  her  milk  and  fat 
production.  If,  at  the  end  of  the  week,  the  cow's  health  is  good 
and  she  has  increased  in  fat  or  milk  production  sufficiently  to 
pay  for  the  increase  in  feed,  another  pound  per  day  should 
be  added  to  the  grain  ration  as  l)efore,  and  so  on  until  the 
cow  is  getting  all  the  feed  she  ^\^ll  eat  up  clean,  if  she  shows 
in  her  product  that  she  will  pay  for  the  increase  each  time." 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS      145 

Thus  the  requirements  of  a  cow  weighing  1100  pounds 
and  producing  35  pounds  of  3.2  per  cent  milk  are  as  follows : 


Digestible 
Protein 

Total 

Nutriment 

For  maintenance 

For  35  lb.  of  3.2  per  cent  milk     .     . 

Lb. 

0.7700 
2.0405 

Lb. 
8.7175 

10.4545 

Total 

2.8105 

19.1720 

The  ration  is  then  calculated  in  the  usual  manner,  keeping 
in  mind  that  the  total  nutriment  is  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  fat  by  2.25,  and  adding  to  it  the  protein  and  carbohy- 
drates. 

The  Well  and  Humphrey  Standard  for  Dairy  Cows.  — 
Woll  and  Humphrey,  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,^ 
have  presented  a  standard  for  dairy  cows  based  upon  the  live 
weight  of  the  cow  and  the  amount  of  butter  fat  produced 
daily.     Their  standard  is  given  in  Table  18. 

Thus  to  determine  the  requirements  of  a  900-pound  cow 
giving  20  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk  daily,  one  first  determines 
the  amount  of  butter  fat  produced  daily,  which  in  this  case 
is  1.0  pound.  From  Table  18,  it  is  seen  that  a  900-pound 
cow  producing  1.0  pound  of  butter  should  have  22.4  pounds 
of  dry  substance,  2.04  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  and  15.0 
pounds  of  total  digestible  substance  (digestible  protein  + 
digestible  carbohydrates  +  digestible  fat).  The  ration  is 
then  calculated  in  the  usual  manner. 

1  Research  Bui.  13. 


146         PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 
Table  18.  —  Woll  and  Humphrey's  Standard  for  Dairy  Cows 


Live 

Production  of  Butter  Fat  per  Day,  Pounds 

weight 
Lb. 

Dry 
cows 

0.0-0.5 
Lb. 

0.5-0.75 
Lb. 

0.75-1.0 
Lb. 

1.0-1.25 
Lb. 

1.25-1.5 
Lb. 

1.5-1.75 
Lb. 

1.75-2.0 
Lb. 

TOTAL   DRY    SUBSTANCE    REQUIRED,    POUNDS 


800 

10.0 

13.7 

16.2 

18.6 

21.1 

23.5 

26.0 

28.4 

900 

11.3 

15.0 

17.5 

19.9 

22.4 

24.8 

27.3 

29.7 

1000 

12.,5 

16.2 

18.7 

21.1 

23.6 

,26.0 

28.5 

30.9 

1100 

13.8 

17.5 

20.0 

22.4 

24.9 

27.3 

29.8 

32.2 

1200 

15.0 

18.7 

21.2 

23.6 

26.1 

28.5 

31.0 

33.4 

1.300 

16.3 

20.0 

22.5 

24.9 

27.4 

29.8 

32.3 

34.7 

1400 

17.5 

21.2 

23.7 

26.1 

28.6 

31.0 

33.5 

35.9 

1500 

18.8 

22.5 

25.0 

27.4 

29.9 

32.8 

34.7 

37.2 

DIGESTIBLE    PROTEIN   REQUIRED,    POUNDS 


800 

0.56 

1.04 

1.35 

1.66 

1.97 

2.29 

2.60 

2.91 

900 

.63 

1.11 

1.42 

1.73 

2.04 

2.36 

2.67 

2.98 

1000 

.70 

1.18 

1.49 

1.80 

2.11 

2.43 

2.74 

3.05 

1100 

.77 

1.25 

1.56 

1.87 

2.18 

2.50 

2.81 

3.12 

1200 

.84 

1.32 

1.63 

1.94 

2.25 

2.57 

2.88 

3.19 

1300 

.91 

1.39 

1.70 

2.01 

2.32 

2.64 

2.95 

3.26 

1400 

.98 

1.46 

1.77 

2.08 

2.39 

2.71 

3.02 

3.33 

1500 

1.05 

1.53 

1.84 

2.15 

2.46 

2.78 

3.09 

3.40 

TOTAL   DIGESTIBLE   SUBSTANCE^   REQUIRED,    POUNDS 


800 

6.3 

9.0 

10.7 

12.5 

14.2 

16.0 

17.7 

19.5 

900 

7.1 

9.8 

11.5 

13.3 

15.0 

16.8 

18.5 

20.3 

1000 

7.9 

10.6 

12.3 

14.1 

15.8 

17.6 

19.3 

21.1 

1100 

8.7 

11.4 

13.1 

14  9 

16.6 

18.4 

20.1 

21.9 

1200 

9.5 

12.2 

13.9 

15.7 

17.4 

19.2 

20.9 

22.7 

1300 

10.3 

13.0 

14.7 

16.5 

18.2 

20.0 

21.7 

23.5 

1400 

11.1 

13.8 

15.5 

17.3 

19.0 

20.8 

22.5 

24.3 

1500 

11.9 

14.6 

16.3 

18.1 

19.8 

21.6 

23.3 

25.1 

Digestible  protein  plus  digestible  carbohydrates  plus  digestible  fat. 


THE   FEED    REQUIREMENTS    OF  FARM  ANIMALS      117 

The  Eckles  Standard  for  Dairy  Cows.  —  Eckles,  of  the 
Missouri  Station/  after  very  elaborate  experimentation,  re- 
cently has  published  a  standard  for  dairy  cows.  He  recom- 
mends the  Armsby  standard  for  maintenance,  to  which  he 
adds  the  amounts  of  digestible  true  protein  and  net  energy 
per  pound  of  milk  as  indicated  in  Table  19. 

Table  19. —  Requirements   per   Pound    of   Milk    of  Varying 
Richness  (Eckles) 


Fat  in  Milk 

Digestible  Protein 

Net  Energy 

Per  Cent 

Lb. 

Therms 

3.0 

0.050 

0.26 

3.5 

0.052 

0.28 

4.0 

0.055 

0.30 

4.5 

0.058 

0.33 

5.0 

0.062 

0.36 

5.5 

0.066 

0.40 

6.0 

0.070 

0.45 

6.5 

0.075 

0.50 

The  requirement  per  pound  of  milk  suggested  for  herd- 
feeding,  where  it  is  not  practical  to  take  into  account  the 
richness  of  the  milk  of  each  individual,  is  given  in  Table  20. 

Table  20.  —  Requirements  Per  Pound  of  Milk  From  Differ- 
ent Breeds  (Eckles) 


Breed 

Digestible  Protein 

Net  Energy 

Holstein 

Lb. 

0.050 
0.055 

0.06() 

Therms 

0.26-0.28 

Shorthorn       ] 

Ayrshire           ) 

Brown  Swiss  J 
Jersey              \ 
Guernsey        / 

0.28-0.30 
0.40-0.45 

1  Res 

earch  Bui.  7. 

148 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


The  protein  content  and  energy  values  of  feedingstuffs  as 
presented  by  Armsby  (Table  31,  Appendix)  are  used  in 
calculating  rations  according  to  the  Eckles  standard. 

Summary  of  Standards  for  Dairy  Cows.  —  It  is  of  con- 
siderable interest  to  compare  the  different  standards  for 
milk  production.  For  the  maintenance  of  a  1000-pound 
cow,  the  different  standards  are  given  in  Table  21. 

Table  21.  —  Summary  of  Standards  for  Maintenance  of 
Dairy  Cows 


Standard 

Digestible 
Protein 

Total 
Nutriment 

Net 
Energy 

Armsby 

Haecker 

Savage    

Woll-Humphrey    .     .     . 
Eckles 

Lb. 

0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.61 

Lb. 

7.9 
7.9 
8.1 

Therms 

6.0 
6.0 

Average      •     •     •          0.66 

7.97 

6.0 

For  the  production  of  1  pound  of  4  per  cent  milk,  the 
standards  are  given  in  Table  22. 

Table  22.  —  Summary   of   Standards   for   Production   of  One 
Pound  of  4  Per  Cent  Milk 


Standard 

Digestible 
Protein 

Total 
Nutriment 

Net 
Energy 

Armsby 

Haecker 

Savage    

WolI-Humphrey    .     .     . 
Eckles 

Lb. 

0.0501 
0.054 
0.065 
0.056 
0.055  1 

Lb. 
0.34 

0.35 
0.31 

Therms 

0.3 
0.3 
0.3 

Average      •     •     •          0.056 

0.33 

0.3 

True  protein,  not  crude  protein. 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS      149 

These  results,  obtained  from  careful,  independent  investiga- 
tion, agree  with  each  other  remarkably  well  and  their  average 
probably  represents  the  requirements  for  milk  production 
as  closely  as  they  may  be  represented  by  a  mathematical 
expression. 

Requirements  for  Wool  Production.  —  Inasmuch  as  wool 
is  composed  largely  of  protein,  a  small  amount  of  protein 
is  necessary  for  wool  production.  Armsby,^  after  reviewing 
the  available  experiments,  concludes  that  0.14  lb.  of  protein 
daily  per  1000  pounds  live  weight  should  be  added  to  the 
other  protein  requirements  for  wool  production.  In  ex- 
periments by  Grindley,  Emmett,  Coffey,  and  Bull  at  the 
Illinois  Station,^  feeding  large  amounts  of  protein  did  not 
produce  any  more  wool  in  the  case  of  fattening  lambs  than 
when  only  a  medium  amount  was  fed.  When  sheep  in  good, 
thrifty  condition  receive  sufficient  nutrients  for  the  other 
functions  of  the  body,  it  is  probable  that  the  additional  re- 
quirements for  wool  production  may  be  neglected. 

The  Feed  Unit  System  of  Calculating  Rations.  —  Although 
it  has  been  used  but  httle  in  this  country,  the  feed  unit 
system  is  used  quite  extensively  in  Denmark,  where  it  origi- 
nated, and  in  other  Scandinavian  countries.  It  is  used 
almost  entirely  for  dairy  cows,  though  to  a  slight  extent  for 
the  other  classes  of  farm  animals. 

Unlike  the  other  standards  already  discussed,  the  feed 
unit  system  does  not  take  into  account  either  the  total 
digestible  nutrients  or  the  net  energy  values  of  the  feeds. 
Instead,  the  different  feeds,  after  many  carefully  conducted 
feeding  experiments,  were  given  equivalent  values,  regarding 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bur.  of  Anim.  Ind.  Bui.  143. 
'  Unpublished  data. 


150 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 


a  pound  of  mixed  grain  like  corn,  wheat,  or  barley  as  the 
standard  by  which  all  other  feeds  are  compared.  Thus 
corn,  wheat,  and  barley  were  all  given  a  value  of  ''  1  unit  " 
per  pound  after  it  was  found  that  equal  amounts  of  these 
feeds  could  be  substituted  for  each  other  in  the  ration  with- 
out materially  affecting  the  amount  of  production  by  the 
animal.  It  was  found  that  one  pound  of  corn  could  be  re- 
placed by  0.8  pound  of  cottonseed  meal  without  decreasing 
or  increasing  the  production.  Consequently,  it  takes  only 
0.8  pound  of  cottonseed  meal  to  equal  one  unit.  The 
amounts  of  other  feeds  required  to  equal  one  unit  were  deter- 
mined in  the  same  way. 

The  amounts  of  different  feeds  required  to  equal  one  feed 
unit  are  given  in  Table  23,  in  so  far  as  they  have  been  deter- 
mined. 


Table  23.  —  Amounts  of  Different  Feeds  Equivalent  to 
One  Feed  Unit 


Feedingstuff 


Feed  Required  to  Equal 
One  Unit 

Average 
Lb 

Range 
Lb 

1.0 

_ 

0.8 

— 

0.9 

— 

1.1 



1.2 

— 

12.0 

1.5-  3.0 

2..') 

2.0-  3.0 

3.0 

2.^  4.0 

Corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  hominy  feed,  dried 
brewers'  grains,  wheat  middlings,  peas, 
dried  beet  pulp,  dry  matter  in  roots     .     . 

Cottonseed  meal,  peanut  meal 

Linseed  meal,  dried  distillers'  grains,  gluten 
feed,  soy  beans 

Wheat  bran,  oats,  malt  sprouts,  molasses 
grains 

Alfalfa  meal,  alfalfa-molasses  feed  .... 

Alfalfa  hay,  elover  hay 

Mixed  hay,  oat  hay,  oat  and  pea  hay,  })arley 
and  pea  hay,  red  top  hay 

Timothy  hay,  prairie  hay,  sorghum  hay  .     . 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS     lr>l 


Table  23.  —  Amounts  of  Different  Feeds  Equivalent  to 
One  Feed  Unit  (Continued) 


Feedingstuff 


Corn  stover,  corn  fodder,  straw 

Green  alfalfa 

Corn  silage 

Wet  brewers'  grains      .... 

Sugar  beets 

Carrots 

Rutabagas 

Field  beets,  rape 

Turnips,  mangels,  fresh  beet  pulp 
Pasture,  per  day 


Feed  Required  to  Equal 
One  Unit 

Average 
Lb. 

Range 
Lb. 

4.0 

3.5-  CO 

7.0 

6.0-  8.0 

6.0 

— 

4.0 

— 

7.0 

— 

8.0 

— 

9.0 

8.0-10.0 

10.0 

— 

12.5 

10.0-15.0 

— 

8-121 

The  following  feeding  standard  ^  for  dairy  cows  has  been 
proposed  by  Hansson,  of  the  Royal  Swedish  Academy  for  a 
1000-pound  cow  per  day  : 

For  maintenance,  0.65  lb.  digestible  protein  and  6.6  feed  units. 
For  production,  0.045  lb.  to  0.05  lb.  digestible  protein  and  §  feed 
unit  per  pound  of  milk. 

Thus  a  ration  for  a  1100-pound  cow  giving  40  pounds  of 
milk  is  calculated  as  follows : 


Digestible 
Protein 

Feed  Units- 

Required  for  maintenance     . 
Required  for  production  .... 

Lb. 

0.72 
2.00 

7.3 
13.3 

Total  requirement     .... 

2.72 

20.6 

'  Depending  upon  kind  and  condition. 

2  Alter  Woll,  "  Productive  Feeding  of  Furn.  Animals,"  p.  80. 


152 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


A  ration  consisting  of  7J  pounds  of  ground  corn,  3  pounds  of 
linseed  oil  meal,  10  pounds  of  clover  hay,  and  30  pounds  of 
corn  silage  would  contain  the  following  amount  of  digestible 
protein  and  feed  units : 


Digestible 
Protein 

Feed  Units 

7|  lb.  corn  contain 

3  lb.  oil  meal  contain  .... 
10  lb.  clover  hay  contain  .  .  . 
30    lb.  corn  silage  contain     .     .     . 

Lb. 

0.59 
0.92 
0.71 
0.39 

7.5 
3.3 
5.0 
5.0 

Total  ration  contains      .     .     . 

2.61 

20.8 

This  ration  satisfies  the  requirements  of  the  standard. 

The  feed  unit  system  is  especially  valuable  as  a  means 
of  comparing  the  efficiency  of  production  by  different  cows, 
as  it  is  quite  easy  to  calculate  the  amount  of  milk  produced 
per  feed  unit.  It  is  the  official  standard  of  many  cow-testing 
associations  in  Europe. 

Self-feeders.  —  Any  study  of  feeding  standards  and  bal- 
anced rations  is  incomplete  without  a  discussion  of  the 
*'  cafeteria  system  "  of  balancing  rations.  By  the  cafeteria 
system  the  animals  are  given  free  access  to  different  feeds 
and  allowed  to  eat  as  much  or  as  little  of  each  feed  as  they 
choose.  This  is  done  usually  by  means  of  a  self-feeder, 
which  is  a  feed  box  so  built  as  to  hold  a  considerable  quantity 
of  concentrated  feed,  a  portion  of  which  is  accessible  to  the 
animals  at  all  times,  and  at  the  same  time  protect  the  large 
bulk  of  the  feed  from  the  weather  and  keep  the  animals 
from  mussing  over  it. 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS      153 


Figure  24  shows  a  self-feeder  for  cattle  as  designed  by 
Mumford  of  the  Illinois  Station.  Figure  25  shows  a  self- 
feeder  for  hogs  as  designed  by  Carmichael  of  the  Illinois 
Station. 

For  Hogs.  —  Evvard  of  Iowa  has  conducted  the  most 
elaborate  experiments  with  self-feeders  for  hogs.  Evvard 
found  that,  in  feeding 
hogs  for  the  market, 
self-fed  hogs  made 
more  rapid  and  more 
economical  gains 
than  hand-fed  hogs. 
In  another  experi- 
ment seven  lots  were 
fed  as  follows :  Lot 
1,  according  to  the 
Wolf  f-Lehmann 
standard ;  Lot  II, 
according  to  the  Kell- 
ner  standard ;  Lot 
III,  according  to  the 

Dietrich  standard  with  water  at  free  will ;  Lot  IV,  accord- 
ing to  Dietrich  with  water  weighed ;  Lot  V,  self -fed  corn, 
middlings,  and  tankage ;  Lot  VI  had  free  choice  of  the  same 
feeds  offered  them  three  times  daily ;  and  Lot  VII  had  free 
choice  of  the  same  feeds  offered  them  twice  daily.  The  free- 
choice  and  self-fed  lots  made  the  fastest  and  most  econom- 
ical gains,  requiring  considerable  less  grain  for  100  pounds 
of  gain  than  those  fed  according  to  accepted  standards. 

Professor  Evvard  states  that  in  case  of  breeding  gilts  it 
may  be  necessary  to  hmit  the  corn  either  by  hand  feeding 


Fig.   24. — A  self-feeder  for  cattle.     (Mumford, 
Beef  Production.) 


154  rRIXCIPLES    OF   FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 


THE  FEED   REQUIREMENTS   OF  FARM  ANIMALS     155 

or  by  mixing  it  with  ground  alfalfa  hay.  From  these  and 
other  experiments  the  Iowa  Station  concludes  that  the  pig's 
own  appetite,  with  free  choice  of  feeds  before  him  at  all 
times,  seems  to  be  the  best  feeding  standard  for  swine. 

For  Cattle.  —  Self-feeders  are  perhaps  more  generally 
used  for  fattening  cattle  than  for  any  other  class  of  live  stock. 
In  a  census  taken  by  Mumford  and  Hall  at  the  lUinois 
Experiment  Station  ^  among  the  larger  cattle  feeders  of 
Illinois,  it  was  found  that  28  per  cent  of  them  were  using 
the  self-feeder.  If  one  includes  the  smaller  feeders  perhaps 
it  would  be  found  that  a  smaller  per  cent  than  this  are  using 
the  self-feeder. 

The  objections  to  the  use  of  the  self-feeder  for  cattle  are 
as  follows : 

1.  It  cannot  be  safely  used  to  start  cattle  on  feed.  Thus 
they  should  be  hand-fed  until  they  are  on  full-feed,  or  the 
hay  may  be  ground  or  cut  finely  and  mixed  with  the  con- 
centrates until  they  are  on  full-feed.  Unless  considerable 
care  is  taken  in  getting  them  on  full-feed  there  ^vill  be  danger 
of  founder. 

2.  Even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  cattle  re- 
quire shghtly  more  feed  to  produce  a  pound  of  grain  when 
self-fed. 

3.  It  is  difficult  to  furnish  the  nitrogenous  concentrate  in 
the  self-feeder  and  it  often  is  fed  by  hand. 

4.  The  feeder  is  liable  to  become  careless  and  not  pay 
enough  attention  to  the  cattle.  An  old  German  adage  states, 
*'  The  eye  of  the  master  fattens  his  cattle." 

5.  Unless  the  feeder  is  properly  constructed  there  will  be 
a  loss  of  feed  by  slobbering  or  mussing  over  it. 

1  Cir.  98. 


156         PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

6.  The  cost  of  a  feeder  large  enough  to  accommodate  10 
or  12  steers  will  be  between  $35  and  $50. 

7.  There  will  be  less  roughage  consumed  than  when  hand 
feeding  is  practiced. 

The  advantages  of  the  self-feeder  for  cattle  are  as  follows  : 

1.  It  is  more  economical  of  labor. 

2.  It  is  more  reliable  than  a  careless  man. 

3.  Cattle  will  eat  more  and  m^ke  greater  gains  and  con- 
sequently require  a  shorter  feeding  period. 

4.  When  properly  constructed,  there  is  little  feed  wasted. 
Thus  it  seems  that,  although  the  self-feeder  for  cattle  is  not 

advisable  for  all  conditions,  yet  there  certainly  is  a  place  for 
it  upon  some  corn  belt  farms,  especially  where  labor  is  expen- 
sive and  unreliable  and  where  roughage  is  scarce. 

For  Sheep.  —  Self-feeders  for  sheep  are  used  to  a  large 
extent  by  men  who  make  a  practice  of  feeding  large  numbers 
of  western  lambs  or  wethers.  They  are  used  to  only  a  small 
extent  by  small  feeders,  as  they  reduce  the  gains  and  waste 
feed  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  sheep  is  very  particular 
about  eating  feed  which  has  been  slobbered  over  by  other 
animals.  Most  good  sheepmen,  however,  have  a  ''lamb 
creep  "  in  which  feed  is  kept  in  an  ordinary  feed  trough  for 
suckling  lambs. 

For  Horses.  —  Self-feeders  are  never  used  for  horses  except 
when  a  ''  creep  "  is  provided  for  sucking  and  weanling  foals. 
Then  the  feed  is  kept  in  a  feed  box  or  trough  rather  than  in 
a  self-feeder. 


CHAPTER  IX 
GRAINS   AND    SEEDS 

Introduction 

It  has  been  stated  that  feedingstuffs  may  be  divided  into 
concentrates  and  roughages  on  the  basis  of  their  content  of 
net  energy  and  digestible  nutrients. 

For  convenience  of  study,  concentrates  and  roughages 
may  be  divided  further  into  classes  and  sub-classes  on  the 
basis  of  their  physical  characteristics  and  sources,  according 
to  the  following  outline : 


Concentrates : 

I. 

Grains  and  seeds 

1.   Cereals 

2.    Legumes 

3.   Oil-bearing  seeds 

II. 

Cereal  by-products 

III. 

Oil  by-products 

IV. 

Packinghouse  by-products 

V. 

Miscellaneous  concentrates 

Roughages : 

I. 

Hays 

1.   Legumes 

2.   Grasses 

II. 

Fodders  and  stovers 

III. 

Straws 

157 

lo8 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


IV.    Pasture  or  forage,  and  soiling  crops 

1 .  Legumes 

2.  Grasses 
V.    Silage 

VI.    Miscellaneous  roughages 

Grains  and  seeds  may  be  subdivided  into  three  sub-classes, 
viz:  (1)  cereal  grains,  (2)  legume  seeds,  and  {\\)  oil-bearing 
seeds. 

CEREAL    GRAINS 

A  cereal  may  be  defined  as  any  plant  belonging  to  the  grass 
family   which   yields   a   farinaceous    {i.e.    floiuy   or  mealy) 


Fig.  26.  —  Corn  production  in  the  United  States.  (United  States  Census.) 
Black  shading,  more  than  3200  bu.  per  square  mile  ;  next  shading,  640  to  3200 
bu.  ;  next-to-bottom  shading,  64  to  640  bu.  ;  bottom  shading,  less  than  64  bu. 

grain  suitable  for  human  food.  The  term  is  applied  both 
to  the  plant  as  a  whole  and  to  the  grain  itself.  The  leading 
cereal  grains  of  importance  as  feedingstuffs  to  the  corn-belt 
farmer  are  corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley.  Of  less  im- 
portance are  emmer,  speltz,  sorghum,  millet,  and  rice. 


GRAINS  AND   SEEDS 


159 


Corn.  —  Corn  is  not  only  the  most  important  concentrate 
of  the  corn-belt,  but  it  is  also  the  most  important  single 
feedingstuff  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  reason  for 
this  Hes  in  the  fact  that,  under  favorable  conditions,  corn 
will  produce  upon  the  same  acreage  a  greater  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  than  almost  any  other  crop.  It  will 
produce  about  twice  as  much  as  any  of  the  other  cereals. 
Table  24  clearly  illustrates  this  point. 

Table  24. — Yield  of  Digestible  Nutrients  per  Acre 


Crop 


Digestible  Nu- 
trients PER 
Acre 


Corn  —  Grain 

Stover     . 
Oats  —  Grain 
Straw 
Barley  —  Grain    . 
Straw  . 
Wheat  —  Grain  . 
Straw  . 
Soy  beans  —  Grain 
Straw 
Cowpeas  —  Grain 
Straw 

Clover  hay 
Alfalfa  hay     . 
Cowpea  hay  . 
Timothy  hay 
Shock  corn 
Corn  silage     . 
Green  corn 
Sorghum  (green) 
Sugar  beets     .     . 
Mangels     .     .     . 
Rape     .... 


50 

U 
40 

U 
40 

1 
20 

1 
15 

1 
12 

1 


bu. 

tons 

bu. 

tons 

bu. 

ton 

bu. 

ton 

bu. 

ton 

bu. 

ton 


4    tons 

2\  tons 

1|  tons 

3|  tons 

10    tons 

10    tons 

10    tons 

20    tons 

20    tons 

10    tons 


Lh. 

3795 

2045 

2278 

1661 

1392 

1332 

2335 
4152 
2490 
1437 
2681 
3260 
2660 
2500 
4480 
2680 
2080 


160 


PRINCirLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


Over  two-thirds  of  the  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  is 
produced  by  the  following  states :  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Missouri,  Indiana,  and  Ohio. 
Consequently,  these  states  are  often  spoken 
of  as  ''  the  corn-belt."  Although  corn  is 
grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  many  other 
states,  in  no  instance  is  the  production  larger 
than  the  consumption.  In  many  states  little 
or  no  corn  is  grown.  Over  90  per  cent  of 
the  total  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  is 
produced  by  21  states. 

There  are  two  races  of  corn  of  special 
interest  to  the  stock  feeder,  viz.,  flint  corn 
and  dent  corn.  FUnt  corn  is  harder,  smaller, 
and  yields  less  than  dent  corn.  It  is  es- 
pecially adapted  to 
localities  with  a  sea- 
son too  short  to  pro- 
duce the  dent  varie- 
ties. It  is  grown 
largely  in  the  north- 
ern and  eastern  parts 
of  the  United  States. 
In  the  corn-belt,  dent  corn  is  practi- 
cally the  only  race  of  corn  used  for 
stock  feeding,  o^ving  to  the  larger 
yield.  There  is  little  difference  in 
the  chemical  composition  and  feed- 
ing  value    of   flint    and    dent    corn. 

Corn  may  be  of  varied  colors,  yellow  and  white  being  the 
most  common.     It  is  often  said  that  yellow  corn  has   a 


Fig.  27.  —  An 
ear  of  dent  corn. 
(Livingston,  Field 
Crop  Production.) 


Fig.  28.  —  Cross-section 
of  a  kernel  of  dent  corn. 
(Livingston,  Field  Crop 
Production.) 


GRAINS   AND   SEEDS 


161 


% 


higher  feeding  value  than  white  corn,  or  vice  versa.  How- 
ever, as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  no  difference  in  either 
the  chemical  composition  or  the  feeding 
value  of  white  and  yellow  corn. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  corn 
is  as  follows  :  water,  10.6  per  cent;  ash,  1.5 
per  cent ;  crude  protein,  10.3  per  cent ;  crude 
fiber,  2.2  per  cent;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
70.4  per  cent;  and  fat,  5.0  per  cent.  Its 
net  energy  value  in  88.8  therms  per  100 
pounds.  As  shown  by  its  chemical  compo- 
sition and  energy  value,  corn  is  preeminently 
a  fattening  feed.  In  this  respect  it  is  with- 
out a  rival.  It  is  relatively  high  in  starch 
and  fat,  medium  in  crude  protein,  and  quite 
low  in  ash.  Furthermore,  as  has  been  men- 
tioned already,  the  principal  protein  of  corn 
is  not  satisfactory  for  growth.  Hence  corn 
should  be  fed  to 
young  animals,  breed- 
ing animals,  and  milk 
cows  in  moderation, 
and  it  should  be  sup- 
plemented by  feeds  rich  enough  in 
protein  and  mineral  matter  to  make 
up  the  deficiencies  in  these  nutrients. 
Corn  is  a  very  palatable  feed,  owing 
to  its  high  content  of  fat  and  its  crisp, 
flinty  nature.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it 
is  the  most  palatable  of  all  the  cereals. 

Corn  may  be  fed  in  various  ways.     It  is  fed  as  ear  corn, 


Fig.  29.  —  An 
ear  of  flint  corn. 
(Livingston,  Field 
Crop  Production.) 


Fig.  30.  —  Cross-section 
of  a  kernel  of  flint  corn. 
(Livingston,  Field  Crop 
Production.) 


162         PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

especially  to  horses  and  hogs ;  as  broken  ears,  especially 
to  cattle;  as  shelled  corn,  especially  to  sheep;  and  as 
ground  corn,  especially  to  milk  cows,  and  to  young  animals 
in  general.  It  is  also  fed  as  fodder  corn,  as  a  forage,  and  as 
silage. 

For  Growing  Stock.  —  In  general  corn  should  be  used 
in  limited  amounts  in  the  feeding  of  growing  animals  as  it 
is  deficient  in  muscle-  and  bone-forming  constituents.  For 
such  animals,  it  should  be  supplemented  by  concentrates 
which  are  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter  and  by  the 
legume  hays. 

For  calves  and  growing  cattle,  corn  may  comprise  from 
one-fourth  to  one-half  the  concentrates  of  the  ration,  the 
remainder  of  the  concentrates  being  made  up  of  feeding- 
stuffs  containing  more  protein  and  mineral  matter.  If  possi- 
ble, legume  hays  also  should  be  fed  ^vith  it.  If  non-legume 
roughages  are  fed,  the  proportion  of  corn  in  the  ration  should 
be  decreased,  and  the  nitrogeneous  concentrates  increased. 
For  young  calves,  corn  should  be  ground.  The  ears  should 
be  broken  for  older  cattle. 

In  case  of  foals  and  young  horses,  corn  should  not  form 
more  than  one-third  of  the  concentrates.  Oats,  bran,  or  a 
Uttle  hnseed  meal  should  be  used  with  it  to  make  up  the  defi- 
ciency in  protein  and  mineral  matter.  Young  foals  should 
have  ground  corn,  and  older  colts,  ear-corn. 

Corn  should  be  fed  to  growing  pigs  in  hmited  amounts, 
supplemented  by  such  nitrogenous  feeds  as  tankage,  mid- 
dlings. Unseed  meal,  skim  milk,  or  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture. 
From  50  to  90  per  cent  of  the  ration,  depending  upon  the 
amount  of  protein  in  the  supplement  used,  may  consist  of 
ear  corn. 


GRAINS   AND    SEEDS  163 

Young  lambs  should  be  fed  ground  corn  with  ground  oats, 
bran,  gluten  feed,  or  Unseed  meal.  As  soon  as  they  get  their 
teeth,  lambs  should  have  shelled  corn  or  finely  broken  ear 
corn.  Not  over  50  per  cent  of  the  concentrates  should 
consist  of  corn  unless  it  is  intended  to  fatten  them.  They 
should  have  clover  or  alfalfa  as  roughage. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  As  previously  stated,  corn  is  pre- 
eminently a  fattening  feed.  In  fact,  it  is  the  best  fattening 
feed  available,  especially  if  properly  supplemented. 

When  fed  to  fattening  cattle  with  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other 
legume  hay,  corn  may  form  from  75  to  90  per  cent  of  the 
concentrates  of  the  ration.  When  fed  with  a  non-nitrogenous 
roughage,  as  timothy  hay,  corn  stover,  silage,  or  straw,  the 
proportion  of  corn  in  the  concentrates  should  be  reduced. 
Corn  should  be  supplemented  by  Unseed  oil  meal,  cottonseed 
meal,  gluten  meal,  or  soy  beans.  It  is  probably  most 
economical  to  feed  corn  to  fattening  cattle  in  the  form  of 
broken  ears,  except  in  case  it  is  fed  with,  silage  when  it  should 
be  shelled.  However,  when  unground  corn  is  fed  to  fatten- 
ing cattle,  they  should  be  followed  by  hogs  to  pick  up  any 
lost  or  undigested  grain. 

For  fattening  mature  hogs,  corn  alone  may  be  successfully 
used,  especially  if  they  have  access  to  pasture.  Inasmuch 
as  most  fattening  is  done  when  the  hogs  are  immature, 
however,  corn  should  be  supplemented  ^\^th  such  feeds  as 
tankage  or  middlings.  Corn  may  make  up  from  75  to  95 
per  cent  of  the  ration  depending  upon  the  amount  of  protein 
in  the  supplementary  feed.  It  is  probably  most  economical 
to  feed  ear-corn  to  fattening  hogs,  although  some  authorities 
advocate  shelling  and  soaking,  or  grinding  corn  for  fattening 
hogs  weighing  150  to  200  pounds. 


164  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

For  fattening  lambs  and  sheep,  shelled  or  finely  broken  ear- 
corn  may  form  the  sole  concentrate  if  fed  with  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay.  If  fed  with  a  non-nitrogenous  roughage,  as 
timothy  hay  or  corn  stover,  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal, 
gluten  feed,  or  some  other  nitrogenous  concentrate  should 
furnish  25  per  cent  of  the  concentrates  of  the  ration. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  The  same  precautions,  only  perhaps 
in  a  less  degree,  should  be  taken  in  feeding  corn  to  breeding 
stock  as  in  feeding  it  to  growing  animals.  Especially  is 
this  true  during  pregnancy.  An  excess  of  corn  in  the  ration 
not  only  does  not  furnish  sufficient  protein  and  mineral 
matter  for  the  proper  development  of  the  foetus,  but  it 
also  is  too  heating  and  too  fattening. 

Breeding  cattle  require  httle  or  no  corn  when  good  pasture 
is  available.  In  winter,  it  should  not  make  up  over  one-half 
the  concentrates.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  utilize  corn  for 
breeding  cows  is  in  the  form  of  silage  properly  supplemented. 

In  the  case  of  brood  mares,  either  pregnant  or  nursing  a 
foal,  corn  should  not  form  more  than  one-third  of  the  con- 
centrates. Oats  or  bran  with  a  Httle  Unseed  meal  should  be 
used  with  it  in  order  to  supply  the  deficiency  in  protein  and 
mineral  matter.  In  connection  with  this  statement,  it 
should  be  noted  that  many  of  the  brood  mares  of  the  corn- 
belt  have  no  other  concentrate  than  corn,  and  no  other 
roughage  than  timothy  hay.  If  considerable  corn  is  used 
in  the  ration,  some  good,  clean  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  or 
clover  or  blue  grass  pasture  should  be  available. 

Corn  is  too  fattening,  too  heating,  and  too  deficient  in 
bone-  and  muscle-forming  constitutents  to  justify  its  use 
in  large  quantities  by  breeding  hogs.  It  may  be  used,  how- 
ever, up  to  the  extent  of  one-third  to  one-half  the  concentrates 


GRAINS  AND   SEEDS  165 

of  the  ration,  the  remainder  being  made  up  of  such  feeding- 
stuffs  as  ground  oats,  wheat  middhngs,  and  bran  with  a 
Httle  tankage.  Blue  grass,  clover,  or  alfalfa  pasture  makes 
a  good  supplement  to  corn. 

For  breeding  ewes,  corn  should  not  make  up  more  than 
50  per  cent  of  the  concentrated  portion  of  the  ration.  Even 
less  than  this  usually  will  give  better  results.  A  mixture 
of  such  feedingstuffs  as  oats,  bran,  or  linseed  meal  should 
make  up  the  remainder  of  the  concentrates  of  the  ration. 

For  Milk  Cows.  —  Inasmuch  as  the  milk  cow  requires  large 
amounts  of  protein  and  mineral  matter  for  milk  production, 
the  ration  should  be  correspondingly  rich  in  these  nutrients. 
Consequently,  corn  ordinarily  should  not  make  up  more  than 
50  per  cent  of  the  concentrates,  even  when  fed  with  ni- 
trogenous roughages.  The  remainder  of  the  concentrates 
should  consist  of  a  mixture  of  several  of  such  feedingstuffs 
as  oats,  gluten  feed,  linseed  oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal, 
and  bran.  When  fed  with  a  non-nitrogenous  roughage,  not 
over  one-fourth  or  one-third  of  the  concentrates  should 
consist  of  corn.  Corn  usually  is  fed  to  milk  cows  in  the 
form  of  ground  corn,  or  corn  and  cob  meal,  which  is  the 
entire  ear,  coarsely  ground. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  It  was  thought  formerly  that  corn 
was  not  a  proper  feed  for  work  horses,  oats  being  preferable. 
However,  it  was  found  by  Carmichael  at  the  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station  ^  that  when  mixed  hay  was  fed  to  mature 
geldings  at  general  farm  work,  ear  corn  was  as  efficient, 
pound  for  pound,  as  oats.  Moreover,  the  use  of  corn  was 
more  economical.  At  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station,^ 
Trowbridge  found  that  mature  mules  doing  farm  work  were 
1  Bui.  195.  2  Bui.  114. 


166  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

kept  28  per  cent  more  economically  on  a  ration  of  corn  and 
mixed  hay  than  on  a  ration  of  oats  and  mixed  hay.  How- 
ever, at  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station/  McCampbell 
found  that  oats  were  better  than  corn  when  fed  with  either 
timothy  or  prairie  hay.  When  fed  \vith  alfalfa  hay,  corn 
gave  as  good  results  and  was  one-third  cheaper  than  a 
ration  of  oats  and  prairie  hay.  Also  actual  practice  seems 
to  show  that,  in  the  case  of  mature  working  horses,  corn 
may  be  fed  in  large  amounts  for  extended  periods  of  time 
with  practically  as  good  results  as  when  oats  comprise  the 
grain  ration.  This  is  of  considerable  practical  importance 
as,  at  ordinary  prices,  corn  makes  a  much  cheaper  ration  than 
oats. 

Soft  corn  is  corn  which  has  been  killed  by  frost  while  the 
grain  is  still  immature.  Consequently  it  contains  too 
much  moisture  for  storage  or  shipment.  It  may  contain 
as  much  as  30  or  40  per  cent  water.  The  only  use  for  soft 
corn  is  to  feed  it  as  soon  as  possible  to  cattle,  hogs,  or  sheep. 
It  is  not  a  safe  feed  to  use  for  horses,  and  considerable  care 
should  be  exercised  in  getting  the  other  farm  animals  upon 
a  full  feed  of  soft  corn.  In  an  experiment  with  fattening 
steers  by  Kennedy,  Dinsmore,  Rutherford,  and  Smith  at 
the  Iowa  Station,^  it  was  found  that  soft  corn  was  equal  to 
sound  corn  in  feeding  value,  pound  for  pound  of  dry  sub- 
stance. In  feeding  soft  corn  better  results  will  be  obtained 
by  feeding  three  or  four  times  a  day  as  an  animal  cannot 
eat  enough  dry  substance  to  obtain  the  best  results  if  fed 
only  twice  a  day. 

Wheat.  —  Wheat  generally  is  considered  too  valuable  as 
a  human  food  to  be  of  particular  importance  as  a  stock 

1  Bui.  186.  «  Bui.  75, 


GRAINS  AND   SEEDS  167 

feed.  Under  exceptional  conditions,  however,  as  in  case 
of  an  abnormally  cheap  price  or  poor  quality,  wheat  may  be 
utilized  profitably  as  a  feed  for  farm  animals.  Some  feeders 
make  it  a  rule  to  feed  their  wheat  when  it  is  worth  only  ten 
per  cent  more  than  corn.  It  is  estimated  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  that  ordinarily  about  two 
per  cent  of  the  total  wheat  crop  is  utilized  as  feed  for 
farm  animals. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  wheat,  viz.,  spring  and  winter 
wheat.  Winter  wheat  is  the  ordinary  wheat  of  the  corn- 
belt.  It  is  sown  in  the  fall  and  harvested  the  following 
summer.  Spring  wheat  is  sown  in  the  spring  and  harvested 
that  summer.  It  is  grown  especially  in  Minnesota,  Iowa, 
Nebraska,  the  Dakotas,  Montana,  and  in  central  and 
western  Canada,  where  the  climate  is  too  severe  for  winter 
wheat.  There  is  little  or  no  difference  in  the  chemical 
composition  and  feeding  value  of  winter  and  spring  wheat. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  wheat  is  as  follows : 
water,  10.5  per  cent;  ash,  1.8  per  cent;  crude  protein,  11.9 
per  cent;  crude  fiber,  1.8  per  cent;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
71.9  per  cent;  and  fat,  2.1  per  cent.  Its  net  energy  value 
is  82.6  therms  per  100  pounds.  Wheat  differs  from  corn  in 
chemical  composition  in  having  slightly  more  protein  and 
mineral  matter,  and  less  than  half  the  amount  of  fat.  Its 
energy  value  is  somewhat  less.  However,  wheat  is  not 
flinty  and  crisp  like  corn,  but  chews  up  into  a  gummy,  un- 
palatable mass,  so  that,  except  in  case  of  sheep,  it  is  unsuited 
for  feeding  purposes  without  previously  being  ground  and 
mixed  with  some  coarser  feed,  such  as  bran  or  oats. 

For  Growing  Stock.  —  Wheat  is  somewhat  better  adapted 
than  corn  for  growing  animals  as  it  contains  more  protein 


168  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

and  mineral  matter.  However,  wheat  alone  is  not  a  satis- 
factory ration  for  growing  animals.  At  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station,^  wheat  and  mineral  matter  were  not 
sufficient  to  produce  normal  growth  in  pigs.  However,  the 
addition  of  a  small  amount  of  milk  produced  satisfactory 
growth.  Thus,  wheat  should  be  fed  to  immature  animals 
with  other  feeds,  particularly  those  high  in  protein. 

For  calves  and  young  cattle,  ground  wheat  is  an  excellent 
feed.  The  addition  of  oats  up  to  50  per  cent  of  the  concen- 
trates usually  improves  the  ration.  For  colts,  wheat  should 
be  ground  and  mixed  with  bran  or  oats.  It  is  not  satisfactory 
when  fed  alone.  For  young  pigs,  wheat  is  superior  to  corn. 
It  should  be  ground  and  fed  in  a  slop  with  water  or,  prefer- 
ably, with  skim  milk  or  buttermilk.  Wheat  is  also  excel- 
lent for  lambs.     It  need  not  be  ground  for  them,  however. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  In  general,  wheat  is  somewhat  less 
valuable  for  fattening  than  corn.  However,  it  produces  a 
carcass  superior  to  that  of  corn-fed  animals. 

For  fattening  cattle,  ground  wheat  is  not  quite  equal, 
pound  for  pound,  to  ground  corn.  A  mixture  of  the  two 
grains  is  better  than  either  when  fed  alone.  Wheat-fed 
steers  have  less  fat  and  more  bright-colored  lean  meat  than 
corn-fed  steers.  For  fattening  hogs,  corn  and  wheat  are 
about  equal,  but  the  quality  of  the  meat  of  the  wheat-fed 
hogs  is  superior.  A  mixture  of  ground  wheat  and  corn  is 
better  than  either  fed  alone.  Wheat-meal  should  be  fed 
in  a  slop  with  either  water  or  milk.  It  was  found  by  Bliss 
and  Lee  at  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  ^  that  grinding 
increased  the  value  for  hogs  about  one-third.  Soaking 
either  ground  or  unground  wheat  made  no  appreciable  differ- 

1  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  XIX,  1914,  p.  373.  «  Bui.  144. 


GRAINS  AND   SEEDS  169 

ence  in  the  results.  Frozen,  slightly  burned  or  charred,  or 
shrunken  and  damaged  wheat  is  nearly  as  valuable  for  hog 
feeding  as  the  marketable  grain.  For  sheep  and  lambs, 
wheat  is  excellent  during  the  early  stages  of  fattening,  but 
corn  is  about  10  per  cent  more  valuable  during  the  latter 
stages  of  fattening.  It  is  excellent  as  a  feed  for  show  animals 
on  account  of  the  firm  flesh  which  it  produces.  Frozen  or 
otherwise  damaged  wheat  often  is  fed  to  sheep.  Wheat 
need  not  be  ground  for  sheep. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  Wheat  is  better  than  corn  for  breed- 
ing stock,  owing  to  the  larger  amount  of  bone-  and  muscle- 
forming  constitutents  in  it.  Further,  it  is  not  so  fattening 
nor  so  heating  as  corn.  However,  wheat  should  not  form 
the  sole  ration  of  breeding  animals.  At  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station, ^  heifers  and  cows  which  were  fed  on 
wheat,  wheat  gluten,  and  wheat  straw  produced  weak  or 
dead  calves.  The  milk  flow  was  decreased,  and  the  cows 
themselves  were  not  normal.  However,  when  alfalfa  hay 
replaced  the  wheat  straw  of  the  ration,  the  deficiencies  of 
the  ration  were  overcome. 

For  milk  cows,  ground  wheat  is  fully  equal  or  superior 
to  ground  corn.  It  should  be  mixed  with  other  concentrates, 
including  a  nitrogenous  concentrate. 

For  work  horses,  wheat  alone  is  unsatisfactory.  Ground 
and  mixed  with  bran  and  oats,  it  forms  a  satisfactory  ration. 

Oats.  —  Next  to  corn,  oats  are  the  most  extensively 
grown  cereal  in  the  United  States.  They  are  naturally 
adapted  to  a  cooler  climate  than  corn,  but  they  can  be 
grown  successfully  in  a  warmer  climate  provided  the  rain- 
fall is  sufficient.  Thus  they  are  grown  over  a  large  area. 
1  Research  Bui.  17. 


170  PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 


GRAINS  AND   SEEDS  171 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  general  adaptation  for 
feeding  live  stock,  no  cereal  compares  with  oats,  as  they  can 
be  fed  with  safety  to  practically  all  classes  of    animals. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  oats  is  as  follows: 
water,  10.0  per  cent;  ash,  3.0  per  cent;  crude  protein, 
11.8  per  cent;  crude  fiber,  9.5  per  cent;  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract, 59.7  per  cent ;  and  fat,  5.0  per  cent.  Their  net  energy 
value  is  66.3  therms  per  100  pounds.  Oats  contain  about 
twice  as  much  ash,  and  a  httle  more  crude  protein  than  corn. 
Furthermore,  the  mixed  proteins  of  oats  are  more  satisfactory 
for  maintenance  and  growth.  Oats  contain  considerably 
less  energy  than  corn.  Their  high  content  of  crude  fiber,  due 
largely  to  the  loose,  hght  husk  which  incloses  the  kernel, 
gives  them  such  volume  that  an  animal  rarely  suffers  from 
eating  too  much  of  them,  although  they  may  cause  choking 
if  eaten  too  rapidly.  Oats  are  fed  both  whole  and  ground 
or  rolled.  They  are  usually  ground  for  very  young  animals, 
for  dairy  cows,  for  horses  at  very  hard  work,  and  for  horses 
with  poor  teeth. 

Low  grade,  discolored  oats  are  often  bleached  by  treatment 
with  sulphurous  acid  fumes  in  order  to  raise  the  market  grade. 
Horsemen  claim  that  bleached  oats  are  sometimes  injurious. 

For  Growing  Stock.  —  The  chemical  composition  and  energy 
value  of  oats  indicate  that  they  are  a  growing,  rather  than  a 
fattening  feed.  In  addition,  the  physical  structure  of  oats 
makes  them  a  particularly  safe  feed  on  account  of  the  sHght 
danger  of  causing  digestive  disturbances  by  their  use. 
Their  cost  is  practically  the  only  factor  which  may  Umit 
their  use. 

For  calves  and  young  cattle,  oats  may  be  ground  and  fed 
either  as  the  sole  concentrate,  or  in  combination  with  ground 


172  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

corn  or  barle^^  and  some  nitrogenous  concentrate,  as  linseed 
meal  or  bran.  For  foals,  oats  should  be  ground  or  crushed. 
They  should  make  up  a  large  part  of  the  concentrates  of 
colts  and  young  horses.  Ground  oats  with  the  hulls  sifted 
out  may  be  fed  to  young  pigs,  but  are  not  much  used  for 
that  purpose  as  cheaper  rations  will  usually  produce  better 
results.  Ground  oats  with  the  hulls  sifted  out  are  especially 
good  for  very  young  lambs.  The  whole  grain  is  also  very 
good  for  lambs  that  are  to  be  kept  for  breeding  purposes. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  Owing  to  their  small  amount  of 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  their  low  energy  value,  oats  are 
much  inferior  to  corn,  wheat,  and  barley  for  fattening,  and 
should  not  be  used  for  this  purpose  unless  they  are  very 
cheap  in  price. 

If  their  cost  permits,  they  may  be  used  for  cattle  in  the 
early  part  of  the  fattening  period  to  the  extent  of  one-fourth 
or  one-half  the  concentrates  of  the  ration.  After  the  cattle 
are  on  full-feed,  a  more  fattening  concentrate  should  be 
substituted  for  them.  Although  it  is  thought  by  many  cattle 
feeders  that  oats  are  essential  to  the  successful  production 
of  baby  beef,  it  has  been  found  by  Rusk  at  the  IlUnois 
Experiment  Station  ^  that  this  is  not  true.  In  fact,  the  use 
of  oats  considerably  increased  the  cost  of  gains.  They  may 
be  of  value,  however,  in  getting  the  calves  on  full-feed,  but 
are  not  essential  for  this  purpose. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  Owing  to  their  large  amount  of 
ash,  their  relatively  large  amount  of  protein,  and  their 
physical  structure,  oats  are  an  excellent  feed  for  breeding 
animals,  although  they  are  usually  quite  expensive.  The 
use  of  oats  in  the  rations  of  breeding  cows,  brood  mares, 

1  Unpublished  data. 


GRAINS  AND   SEEDS  173 

and  breeding  ewes  may  be  limited  only  by  their  cost.  They 
also  may  be  used  quite  extensively  in  the  rations  of  brood 
sows,  but  a  cheaper  substitute  usually  may  be  found  to 
answer  this  purpose. 

For  milk  cows  there  is  no  better  feed  than  oats.  They 
may  constitute  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the  concentrates 
in  the  ration,  depending  upon  their  price.  Wheat  bran, 
ground  corn,  and  ground  oats  in  equal  parts  make  a  good, 
combination  of  concentrates  for  dairy  cows.  Even  when 
more  expensive  than  corn,  it  usually  is  profitable  to  use 
some  oats  in  the  ration.  As  a  supplement  to  corn,  oats  are 
more  valuable,  pound  for  pound,  than  bran.  Unless  bran  is 
used  in  the  ration,  however,  some  nitrogenous  concentrate, 
as  Unseed  oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  or  gluten  feed  should  be 
used  with  the  corn  and  oats.  The  amount  of  the  nitrogenous 
concentrate  will  depend  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  rough- 
age, i.e.  whether  it  is  nitrogenous  or  non-nitrogenous. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  Concerning  the  use  of  oats  as  a  horse 
feed.  Gay  ^  makes  the  following  statement :  "  The  concen- 
trate best  adapted  to  the  feeding  of  horses  is  oats;  on  ac- 
count of  both  chemical  and  physical  composition,  they 
stand  first  in  this  class.  They  not  only  meet  the  protein 
and  carbohydrate  requirement  best,  but  the  hull  is  an 
advantage,  in  so  extending  the  kernel  as  to  insure  more 
complete  digestion.  Besides,  there  seems  ample  reason  for 
beheving  that  oats  improve  the  fettle,  especially  of  harness 
and  saddle  horses."  The  pointed  end  of  the  oat  hull  is 
sometimes  cHpped  off,  reducing  the  proportion  of  hull  and 
increasing  the  weight  per  bushel.  Clipped  oats  are  used 
as  a  fancy  horse  feed. 

1  "  Productive  Horse  Husbanai-^ ," '  p.  235. 


174  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Oats  are  an  especially  safe  feed  for  horses,  as  the  hull 
gives  them  such  volume  that  the  animal  rarely  suffers  from 
gorging.  For  horses  at  very  hard  work,  they  should  be 
crushed  or  ground.  For  horses  with  good  teeth  not  doing  too 
hard  work,  they  may  be  fed  whole.  A  grain  ration  con- 
sisting of  two-thirds  oats  and  one-third  corn,  barley ,  rye, 
or  wheat,  is  considered  quite  satisfactory.  As  stated  pre- 
viously, for  economical  purposes,  oats  may  be  largely  or 
entirely  supplemented  by  corn  in  the  case  of  mature  work 
horses.     New  and  musty  oats  always  should  be  avoided. 

Rye.  —  Rye  is  more  closely  related  to  wheat  than  to  any 
other  cereal  although  differing  from  it  in  several  particulars. 
It  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  the  cereals.  It  can  be  grown  on 
land  too  low  in  fertility  to  give  a  good  yield  of  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  or  barley.  It  also  will  withstand  weather  conditions 
which  would  prove  disastrous  to  wheat.  For  these  reasons 
it  has  been  called  the  grain  of  poverty.  In  general,  it  may 
be  regarded  as  a  surer  crop  than  wheat. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  rye  is  as  follows : 
water,  11.6  per  cent;  ash,  1.9  per  cent;  crude  protein,  10.6 
per  cent;  crude  fiber,  1.7  per  cent;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
72.5  per  cent;  and  fat,  1.7  per  cent.  Its  net  energy  value 
is  81.7  therms  per  100  pounds.  Although  rye  has  nearly 
the  same  chemical  composition  and  energy  value  as  wheat, 
it  is  5  to  10  per  cent  less  valuable  for  stock  feeding,  owing 
to  its  very  low  degree  of  palatabihty.  It  should  always 
be  ground  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  more  palatable  feeds 
for  all  classes  of  animals  except  sheep. 

For  Growing  Stock.  —  In  general  rye  should  be  used  in 
only  limited  amounts  for  growing  stock.  It  should  not  form 
over  one-third  the  concentrates  of  the  ration.     It  should 


GRAINS   AND   SEEDS 


175 


always  be  ground  except  for  sheep.  It  is  very  doubtful 
if  it  is  profitable  to  use  rye  very  extensively,  if  at  all,  for 
growing  animals  except  in  case  of  hogs. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  Owing  to  its  lack  of  palatability, 
rye  is  not  especially  valuable  as  a  feed  for  fattening  cattle 
and  sheep.  Although  but  little  used  for 
hog  feeding  in  this  country,  it  is  used  quite 
extensively  in  Denmark.  For  hogs,  rye  is 
about  equal  to  barley  in  feeding  value  and 
about  10  per  cent  less  valuable  than  corn. 
It  should  be  ground  and  fed  as  a  thin  slop. 
In  prolonged  feeding,  it  should  be  fed  with 
corn  or  barley,  and  more  nitrogenous  con- 
centrates.    Otherwise  hogs  soon  tire  of  it. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  Rye  should  not  be 
used  to  any  marked  extent  in  the  rations 
of  breeding  stock.  When  it  is  used,  care 
should  be  taken  that  it  is  not  infected  with 
the  fungus,  ergot,  which  may  cause  abortion. 

For  Milk  Cows.  —  Rye  meal  is  shghtly 
less  valuable  than  corn  for  milk  cows.  It 
may  be  fed  in  limited  amounts  with  other 
concentrates.  If  more  than  three  pounds 
are  fed  daily,  the  quality  of  the  milk  and  butter  may  be 
affected,  as  too  much  rye  gives  them  a  bitter  flavor.  Rye 
which  is  infected  with  ergot  should  not  be  used. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  Rye  may  be  fed  to  work  horses,  pro- 
vided it  is  ground  and  mixed  ^vith  other  concentrates.  It 
should  not  form  more  than  one-third  of  the  concentrates. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  not  infected  with  ergot, 
especially  in  the  case  of  brood  mares. 


Fig.  32.  —  Ergot 
in  a  head  of  rye. 
(Duggar,  South- 
ern Field  Crops.) 


176 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


Barley.  —  Barley  is  grown  successfully  in  a  wider  range 
of  climate  than  any  other  cereal.  However,  it  seems  to 
thrive  best  in  a  warm,  dry  climate.  It  is 
grown  principally  on  the  Pacific  coast  and 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States, 
where  corn  is  not  especially  successful,  al- 
though it  can  be  grown  in  the  corn-belt.  It 
is  an  excellent  substitute  for  corn  where  the 
latter  crop  cannot  be  grown  successfully. 
The  best  grades  of  barley  are  used  princi- 
pally for  brewing,  and  the  lower  grades  are 
used  for  stock  feeding. 

As  in  the  case  of  oats,  discolored  barley 
is  often  bleached  with  sulphurous  acid  fumes 
to  brighten  it  up  and  make  it  grade  higher. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  bar- 
ley is  as  follows:  water,  12.0  per  cent;  ash, 
2.5  per  cent;  crude  protein,  11.4  per  cent; 
crude  fiber,  5.7  per  cent ;  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract, 66.6  per  cent;  and  fat,  1.8  per  cent. 
Its  net  energy  value  is  80.7  therms  per  100 
pounds.  It  is  richer  in  bone-  and  muscle- 
forming  constituents  than  corn,  and  slightly 
lower  in  fattening  constitutents.  It  is  not 
as  palatable  as  corn.  The  composition  of 
hulled  barley  is  almost  identical  with  that 
of  wheat. 

For  feeding  purposes,  barley  should  be 
rolled  rather  than  ground,  as  the  ground  bar- 
ley-meal forms  a  pasty  mass  in  the  mouth  of 
the  animal,  which  is  difficult  to  masticate,  swallow,  and  digest. 


Fig.  3  3 .  —  a 
head  of  barley. 
(Livingston,  Field 
Crop  Production.) 


GRAINS   AND   SEEDS 


111 


For  Growing  Stock.  —  Due  to  its  higher  content  of  protein 
and  mineral  matter,  and  its  lower  content  of  carbohydrates, 
barley  may  be  used  to  a  greater  extent  than  corn  in  the 
rations  of  growing  animals. 

For  calves  and  growing  cattle,  barley  should  always  be 
fed  in  combination  with  other  concentrates,  such  as  bran,  or 


•  F^^Tr^— - 

BARLEY                       #^ 

PBOOUOTIOH  IN  1909                                \        1 

»  /VrrW-^  \      ■•  ■  :  > 

r     \  ""^y^ 

'wm^ 

i 

'rr\ 

^•■■- 

"r'X  jL_L___ 

"■    \ -^ 

"■■^ 

\f^ 

Fig.  34,  —  Distribution  of  barley  production  in  the  United  States.     (United 
States  Census,  1910.) 


oats,  or  both,  together  with  a  little  linseed  meal.  Other 
nitrogenous  feeds  may  be  substituted  in  part  for  the  oats 
or  bran.  Ordinarily,  barley  should  not  form  over  one- 
third  of  the  concentrates  of  such  a  ration.  It  should  be  fed 
with  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  legume  hay  as  roughage.  Barley, 
if  fed  with  oats,  bran,  and  hnseed  meal,  proves  satisfactory 
for  colts  and  young  horses.  For  growing  pigs  it  is  much 
better  than  corn.     It  should  be  properly  supplemented  by 


178  PRINCIPLES   OP  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


nitrogenous  concentrates.     Barley  and  oats  mak(^  a   good 
combination  for  very  young  lambs. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  In  general,  barley  is  slightly  less 
valuable  for  fattening  than  corn,  due  to  its  lower  content 
of  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and  to  its  lower 
degree  of  palatability. 

For  beef  cattle,  barley  may  form  three- 
fourths  of  the  concentrates,  the  other 
fourth  being  made  up  of  nitrogenous 
concentrates.  It  should  be  fed  with  a 
legume  hay.  For  fattening  hogs,  barley 
is  about  10  per  cent  less  valuable  than 
corn.  It  produces  a  higher  quaUty  of 
pork,  however.  In  Great  Britain  and 
northern  Europe,  barley  is  the  leading 
feed  for  producing  pork  of  fine  quality. 
If  fed  in  combination  \vith  corn,  wheat 
middhngs,  skim  milk,  tankage,  or  alfalfa 
or  clover  pasture,  barley  is  one  of  the 
l).est  feeds  for  pork  production.  It  is 
(^specially  valuable  for  the  production  of 
bacon,  as  it  produces  a  firmer  flesh  con- 
taining more  lean  and  less  fat  than  the 
flesh  produced  by  corn.  If  fed  with 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  barley  may  furnish  all  the  concen- 
trated part  of  the  ration  of  fattening  lambs  or  sheep.  How- 
ever, it  is  usually  more  satisfactory  to  substitute  corn  for 
a  third  of  the  barley.  If  fed  with  a  non-nitrogenous 
roughage,  additional  protein  in  the  form  of  hnseed  meal  or 
cottonseed  meal  should  be  given.  It  should  ])e  fed  whole 
to  sheep. 


KiG.  35.  —  A  head 
of  emmer.  (Living- 
ston, Field  Crop  Pro- 
duction.) 


GRAINS  AND   SEEDS 


179 


For  Breeding  Stock.  —  Barley  may  be  used  quite  exten- 
sively in  the  rations  of  breeding  animals,  —  up  to  one-third 
or  one-half  of  the  concentrates,  especially  when  fed  with 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 

For  Milk  Cows.  —  In  Denmark  a  mixture  of  one  part  of 
barley  and  two  parts  of  oats  is  regarded  as  the  best  available 
concentrate  for  dairy  cattle.  If  fed  with 
ground  oats  or  bran  and  a  more  nitrogenous 
concentrate,  the  barley  constituting  not  over 
one-half  the  mixture,  it  is  nearly  as  valuable  as 
corn. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  Barley  is  used  quite  ex- 
tensively as  the  sole  grain  feed  for  horses  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  where  corn  and  oats  do  not  flour- 
ish. Also  it  is  used  extensively  in  Europe. 
Some  authorities  claim  that  barley  is  as  valu- 
able a  feed  for  horses  as  oats.  When  the  horses' 
teeth  are  good  and  the  labor  is  not  too  severe, 
it  may  be  fed  whole.  Otherwise,  it  should  be 
rolled  or  crushed. 

Emmer  and  speltz  are  quite  similar  grains 
which  belong  to  the  wheat  family,  although 
in  appearance  they  closely  resemble  barley. 
They  are  especially  valuable  in  the  semi-arid 
regions  of  the  West  and  Northwest,  as  they  Fig.  36.  —  A 
are  quite  resistant  to  drought.  They  are  (ifivrngTt^on, 
similar    in    composition    to    barley,    but    are   Field  Crop  Pro- 

^  -^  '  duction.) 

somewhat  less  valuable  for  feeding  purposes. 

The  sorghums  are  divided  into  two  groups,  the  non- 
saccharine,  or  grain  sorghums,  and  the  saccharine,  or  sweet 
sorghums,  depending  upon  whether  or  not  the  stems  con- 


180 


PRIXCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 


GRAINS    AND    SEEDS 


181 


«  #   9  #  #  « 

^  mm  m 

#  J  #  -#  § 


i^  s  w  s 

#  #  # 

#  a  #  ^ 


182 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


tain  sugar  in  appreciable  amounts.  Both  the  sweet  and 
grain  sorghums  are  used  to  a  large  extent  for  human  food 
in  Asia  and  Africa.  In  this  country  the  grain  sorghums 
are  grown  to  considerable  extent,  and 
the  sweet  sorghums  to  a  sUght  extent, 
for  stock-feeding.  The  sweet  sor- 
ghums are  not  used  for  grain  but  for 
forage.  Being  drought-resistant,  the 
grain  sorghums  are  especially  valuable 
as  substitutes  for  corn  in  the  semi- 
arid  states  of  the  West  and  South- 
west, such  as  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and 
Texas. 

The  principal  grain  sorghums  are 
kafir  corn,  milo-maize,  feterita,  kowli- 
ang,  and  shallu.  The  seeds  are  small, 
round,  hard,  and  of  various  colors. 
They  are  borne  in  large  clusters  at  the 
top  of  the  stalk  of  the  plant,  which 
somewhat  resembles  corn  in  appear- 
ance. 

The  grain  contains  more  carbohy- 
drates, but  less  protein  and  fat  than 
corn.  It  may  be  used  for  all  classes 
of  live  stock  and  is  perhaps  about 
90  per  cent  as  valuable  as  corn.  It 
should  be  threshed  and  ground  for  fattening  cattle,  while  it 
may  be  fed  threshed  or  in  the  head  to  working  horses  and 
to  sheep.  It  may  be  fed  unthreshed  to  idle  horses,  dairy 
cows,  and  young  stock  in  general.  It  should  be  threshed  and 
ground  for  hogs. 


Fig.  39.  —  A  panicle  of 
rice.  (Livingston,  Field 
Crop  Production.) 


GRAINS   AND   SEEDS 


183 


The  Millets.  —  Like  the  sorghums,  the  millets  are  grown 
extensively  in  Asia  and  Africa  as  human  food.  They  are 
grown  sometimes  for  their  seed  in  the  plains  region  of  this 
country,  north  of  the  areas  best  suited  for  the  sorghums, 
and  are  often  used  as  catch-crops 
in  the  corn-belt.  Millet  seed  con- 
tains more  crude  fiber  and  less 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  fat  than 
com.  Its  feeding  value  is  consid- 
erably less  than  that  of  corn. 

Rice  is  grown  exclusively  in  the 
South  for  human  food.  When  dam- 
aged or  cheap  in  price  it  may  be 
used  for  stock-feeding  with  good 
results.  It  is  very  high  in  carbo- 
hydrates, but  is  low  in  protein  and 
fat.  It  has  a  feeding  value  equal 
to  that  of  corn,  and  when  properly  supplemented,  may  be 
fed  with  good  results  to  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  or  hogs  if  the 
cost  will  permit. 


Fig.  40.  —  Ten  varieties 
of  cowpeus.  (Piper,  Forage 
Plants.) 


THE    LEGUME    SEEDS 

The  principal  legume  seeds  used  in  stock  feeding  are 
Canada  field  peas,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  peanuts,  and  field 
beans. 

The  Canada  field  pea  is  grown  principally  in  Canada, 
northern  United  States,  and  in  some  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
valleys  where  the  spring  and  summer  heat  is  not  too  great. 

The  field  pea  is  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter.  Com- 
bined with  other  feedingstuffs,  field  peas  are  eminently  fitted 
as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows  and  may  make  up  as  much  as  50 


184 


PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  41.  —  Ten  varieties 
of  soybeans.  (Piper,  For- 
age Plants.) 


per  cent  of  the  concentrates  of  the  ration.  They  are  also 
very  good,  especially  in  the  form  of  pasture,  as  a  part  of  the 
ration  of  sheep  and  lambs.  With 
ground  corn,  bran,  or  middhngs,  pea- 
meal  forms  an  excellent  ration  for 
growing  and  breeding  hogs.  It  should 
H^      ^       ^    '  not  be  fed  alone  as  it  is  too  heavy 

W^    ^r      ^    V         ^^^  indigestible.     For  fattening  hogs 
«k     IJL    l^^^k        it  is  a  satisfactory  supplement  to  corn. 
y^     w    ^P^P       Although  little  used  for  horse  feeding, 
■I  iP  Hi   hI       ^^^  ^  states  that  they  may  be  em- 
ploj^ed  profitably  in  combination  wdth 
other  concentrates. 

Cowpeas  are  grown  extensively  in 
the  South,  and  some  varieties  may 
be  growTi  successfully  in  the  corn-belt, 
profitably  grown  as  a  substitute  for 
clover  when  the  latter  fails.  Another 
practice  is  to  plant  cowpeas  with  the 
corn,  or  sow  the  peas  between  the  corn 
rows  after  the  last  cultivation,  and 
then  "hog  down"  the  corn  and  peas. 
The  seed  pods  ripen  unevenlj^,  neces- 
sitating gathering  them  by  hand.  For 
this  reason,  the  plant  is  usually  grown 
for  hay,  silage,  or  forage  rather  than 
for  the  seed.  Cowpeas  resemble  Can- 
ada field  peas  in  chemical  composition 
but  are  lower  in  protein  and  higher  in 
carbohydrates.     They  are  especially  valuable  for  hog  feeding. 


The}^  often  may  be 


Fig.  42.  —  Pods  of  cow- 
peas and  soy  beans.  (Liv- 
ingston, Field  Crop  Pro- 
duction.) 


1  "Productive  Horse  Hu-bandry,"  p.  237. 


GRAINS   AND    SEEDS 


185 


Soybeans  are  grown  principally  in  China,  but  some 
varieties  may  be  grown  successfully  in  the  corn-belt.  Henry 
and  Morrison  ^  state  that  no  other  plant  in  the  United  States 
grown  so  little  at  this  time  as  the  soybean  is  so  full  of 
promise  to  agriculture,  especially  to  animal  husbandry.  They 
are  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able substitutes  for  clover 
in  the  corn-belt.  They 
may  be  used  as  hay  or 
forage,  or  the  beans  may 
be  harvested  and  fed. 
The  beans  are  very  high 
in  both  protein  and  fat, 
containing  36.3  and  18.0 
per  cent  respectively. 
One  part  of  soybeans  and 
two  parts  of  corn  with 
mineral  matter  make  a 
fairly  satisfactory  ration 
for  hogs.  They  are  excel- 
lent with  corn  for  sheep. 
Fed  to  dairy  cows,  they 
have  a  tendency  to  pro- 
duce soft  butter.     Owing 


—  Root  of  peanut.      (Livingston, 
Field  Crop  Production.) 


to  the  high  value  of  soybeans  as  seed,  it  is  doubtful  if  they 
can  be  used  economically  for  stock  feeding  until  their  price 
is  lower. 

Peanuts  are  very  high  in  both  protein  and  fat.  They  are 
increasing  in  importance  as  a  feed  for  hogs  in  the  South, 
the  hogs  being  turned  in  when  the  peanuts  are  ripe  and 

1  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  p.  178, 


186 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 


allowed  to  forage  at  will.     They  are  not  grown  in  the  corn- 
belt  to  any  extent. 

Field  beans  are  grown  principally  for  human  food,  but 
the  culls  and  damaged  beans  are  often  available  for  stock 
feed  in  certain  sections  of  the  country.  Their  composition 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  cowpeas.     They  may  be  fed  whole 

in  large  quantities  to 
sheep,  producing  a  solid 
flesh  of  good  quality. 
Better  results  probably 
would  be  obtained  by 
feeding  them  with  corn. 
For  hogs,  they  should  be 
cooked  in  salt  water  and 
fed  with  corn  or  barley, 
as  they  produce  a  soft 
pork  when  fed  alone. 

THE    OIL-BEARING    SEEDS 

Some  plants  store  en- 
FiG.  44.  —  A  cotton  plant.    (Livingston,     gj-gy  in  the  seeds  in  the 

Field  Crop  Production.) 

form  of  fat  or  oil  rather 
than  as  starch.  The  oil-bearing  seeds  contain  as  much  as  40 
per  cent  of  fat  in  some  cases.  They  are  also  quite  high  in  pro- 
tein. Fat  or  oil  being  too  valuable  for  use  in  large  quantities 
as  a  stock  feed,  it  usually  is  pressed  or  extracted  from  the  seeds, 
the  residue  in  the  form  of  a  cake  or  meal  being  used  for  stock 
feeding.  The  use  of  these  by-products  will  be  discussed  later. 
The  principal  oil-bearing  seeds  of  interest  are  cottonseed  and 
flaxseed.  According  to  our  classification,  the  soy  bean  and  pea- 
nut also  fall  in  this  class  as  well  as  in  the  class  of  the  legume  seeds. 


GBAliVS  AND  SEEDS  187 

Cottonseed  is  obtained  after  the  cotton  has  been  removed 
by  ginning.  Formerly,  cottonseed  was  used  quite  exten- 
sively as  a  stock  feed  in  the  South.  However,  owing  to  its 
value  as  the  source  of  cottonseed  oil,  it  is  now  not  generally 
fed,  although  it  is  still  used  to  a  Hmited  extent  for  feeding 
steers  and  dairy  cows.  Cottonseed  should  not  be  fed  to 
hogs. 

Flaxseed  is  also  very  high  in  oil.  Being  the  source  of 
linseed  oil,  it  is  usually  too  valuable  for  ordinary  stock 
feeding.  A  little  ground  flaxseed  often  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  feeding  skim  milk  calves.  For  ordinary  stock- 
feeding,  flaxseed  is  not  as  valuable  as  linseed  oil  meal,  the 
residue  after  the  removal  of  the  oil. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE    CEREAL    BY-PRODUCTS 

The  cereal  by-products,  as  the  name  implies,  consist  of  the 
offal  and  residues  of  the  cereal  grains  resulting  from  the 
manufacture  of  flour,  starch,  meal,  breakfast  food,  and  other 
products  for  human  consumption.  They  usually  contain 
those  parts  of  the  grain  which  are  high  in  crude  fiber,  crude 
protein,  and  ash,  and  low  in  nitrogen-free  extract.  Inasmuch 
as  the  ordinary  farm-grown  rations  are  usually  high  in  car- 
bohydrates and  low  in  crude  protein  and  mineral  matter, 
many  of  the  cereal  by-products  are  of  considerable  im- 
portance to  the  stock  feeder. 

CORN   BY-PRODUCTS 

The  by-products  of  corn  are  principally  from  the  starch 
and  glucose  factories,  from  the  distilleries,  and  from  the 
hominy  factories.  The  starch  and  glucose  by-products 
are  gluten  meal,  gluten  feed,  corn  bran,  and  com  germ  meal. 
The  distillery  by-products  are  distillers'  slops  and  distillers' 
dried  grains.  The  by-product  from  the  manufacture  of 
hominy  is  hominy  meal  or  hominy  feed. 

In  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  glucose,^  the  corn  is 
first  soaked  in  a  warm,  very  dilute  solution  of  sulphurous  acid. 
It  is  then  ground  by  being  passed  with  water  through  mills 

1  Mass.  (Hatch)  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  78. 
188 


THE   CEREAL   BY-PRODUCTS 


189 


to  carry  off  the  substance  in  suspension.     Degerminating 
machinery  removes  the  germs,  which  are  dried  and  crushed 


^ 
^ 


Bmbry^ 
Stem  J 

Smbryd) 
Boot    f 


Crown 
Starch 


Horny 
Starch 

/Horny 
Gluten 


-Hull 


Q-erm 


^_/  Tip 
[Starch 


Tip 
Cap 


Fig.  45.  —  Structure  of  the  corn  kernel.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 

between  rollers,  and  the  oil  pressed  out,  leaving  the  residue 
in  cakes.  This  is  corn  germ  cake.  The  cake  is  usually 
ground  and  sold  as  corn  germ  meal  or  corn  oil  meal.     After 


190  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

degermination  the  residue  of  the  corn  is  bolted  through  sieves 
separating  out  the  hull  and  bran,  which  is  sometimes  sold 
under  the  name  of  corn  bran.  The  residue,  consisting  largely 
of  starch  and  gluten  suspended  in  water,  is  passed  very  slowly 
through  long  shallow  troughs.  The  starch  settles  to  the 
bottom,  while  the  gluten  floats  off  into  receivers.  The 
gluten  is  then  dried  and  ground,  forming  gluten  meal. 

Gluten  meal,  or  ''  corn-starch  by-product  without  corn 
bran,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  one  of  the  richest  concen- 
trates in  crude  protein,  containing  36.0  per  cent.  It  is 
also  relatively  high  in  fat.  It  is  medium  in  content  of 
carbohydrates,  but  low  in  ash.  However,  only  a  small  amount 
of  gluten  meal  is  sold  on  the  market  as  such,  most  of  it  being 
mixed  with  corn  bran  and  sold  as  gluten  feed. 

Gluten  feed,  or  ''  corn-starch  by-product  with  corn-bran," 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  consists  of  gluten  meal  and  corn 
bran  ground  together.  It  is  lower  in  protein  and  higher  in 
crude  fiber  than  gluten  meal,  due  to  the  presence  of  the  corn 
bran.  Most  of  the  gluten  meal  and  corn  bran  is  marketed 
in  this  form.  Sometimes  the  water  used  in  the  separation 
of  the  starch  and  gluten  is  evaporated,  and  the  soluble  pro- 
teins, mineral  matter,  and  carbohydrates,  or  the  ''  corn 
solubles,"  which  it  contains  are  added  to  the  gluten  feed. 

The  chemical  composition  of  gluten  feed  is  as  follows: 
water,  8.5  per  cent;  ash,  1.9  per  cent;  crude  protein,  25.9 
per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  7.2  per  cent ;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
53.3  per  cent ;  and  fat,  3.2  per  cent.  Its  net  energy  value 
is  79.3  therms  per  100  pounds. 

For  Growing  Stock.  —  For  all  young  animals,  gluten  meal 
is  more  satisfactory  than  gluten  feed,  inasmuch  as  it  is  less 
bulky.     It  should  be  fed  with  a  little  linseed  oil  meal  for 


THE    CEREAL   BY-PRODCCTS  191 

the  sake  of  the  laxative  effect  of  the  latter.  With  oats, 
gluten  feed  makes  a  good  concentrate  for  growing  cattle. 
Owing  to  its  deficiency  in  mineral  matter  it  should  not  be 
used  in  the  ration  of  colts  or  growing  horses.  It  may  bq 
used  to  advantage  in  the  rations  of  lambs.  Evvard/  at 
the  Iowa  Station,  found  that  gluten  meal  or  corn  oil  meal 
was  not  a  satisfactory  supplement  to  corn  for  growing  pigs. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  Gluten  feed  may  be  used  as  a 
supplement  to  less  nitrogenous  concentrates  for  fattening 
all  classes  of  five  stock.  Under  present  conditions,  however, 
some  cheaper  supplement  usually  may  be  obtained. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  Gluten  feed  often  may  be  used  to 
advantage  in  the  ration  of  breeding  animals  if  its  cost  will 
permit.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  ration  is  not  deficient 
in  mineral  matter. 

For  Milk  Cows.  —  Gluten  feed  may  be  used  quite  exten- 
sively in  the  ration  of  the  dairy  cow.  In  fact,  this  is  the 
principal  use  made  of  this  feedingstuff.  If  not  too  expensive, 
it  may  be  used  profitably  to  the  extent  of  four  or  five  pounds 
per  day.  Too  much  gluten  feed  has  a  tendency  to  produce 
soft  butter.  This  may  be  counteracted  by  feeding  cotton- 
seed meal  with  it,  as  the  latter  tends  to  produce  hard  butter. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  Gluten  feed  is  sometimes  fed  to  the 
horse.  It  has  the  objection  that  when  moistened  with  saliva 
it  has  a  tendency  to  form  balls  in  the  mouth  and  is  not 
palatable.  It  should  not  be  fed  in  large  quantities,  but  only 
as  a  supplement  to  corn  or  some  other  non-nitrogenous 
concentrate. 

Corn  bran  is  the  outer  covering  of  the  corn  grain.  It 
contains  practically^  all  the  crude  fiber  found  in  the  grain. 

1  Unpublished  data. 


192  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Its  feeding  value  is  low  and  should  not  be  confused  with 
that  of  wheat  bran.  Its  principal  use  in  stock  feeding  is  as 
a  dilutent  of  gluten  meal  to  form  gluten  feed,  and  as 
an  adulterant  of  wheat  bran. 

Corn  oil  meal,  or  corn  germ  meal  consists  of  the  germ 
of  the  corn  after  the  corn  oil  has  been  partially  extracted. 
It  is  quite  high  in  protein,  23  per  cent,  and  in  fat,  10  per  cent. 
Although  it  is  a  valuable  nitrogenous  concentrate,  there  is 
but  httle  available  on  the  market.  It  may  be  used,  especially 
in  the  dairy  ration,  if  its  cost  is  not  too  great.  It  is  lower  in 
feeding  value  than  Unseed  or  cottonseed  meal. 

Distillers'  Slops  and  Dried  Grains.  —  In  the  manufacture 
of  whisky  and  grain  alcohol,  the  rye  or  corn,  as  the  case 
may  be,  is  ground  and  heated  ^\ith  steam  in  large  steel  drums 
in  order  to  thoroughly  cook  the  starch  grains.  It  is  then  cooled 
and  treated  \\Ath.  malt  which  contains  an  enzyme  which  changes 
part  of  the  starch  to  maltose  or  malt  sugar.  The  sugar  is 
then  converted  to  alcohol  by  the  action  of  yeast,  and  the 
alcohol  is  distilled  off,  lea\dng  behind  a  watery  residue  know^n 
as  distillers'  slops.  These  slops  may  be  fed  to  fattening 
steers  at  or  near  the  distillery.  Such  cattle  are  sold  on  the 
market  as  "  distillers."  Distillers'  slops  are  also  fed  to 
hogs. 

In  the  large  distilleries,  however,  the  thicker  slops  are 
dried  and  put  on  the  market  as  distillers'  dried  grains.  They 
contain  30.9  per  cent  crude  protein,  10.7  per  cent  crude  fiber, 
39.2  per  cent  nitrogen-free  extract,  10.6  per  cent  fat,  and 
2.8  per  cent  mineral  matter.  Corn  makes  the  best,  and  rye 
the  poorest,  distillers'  grains.  They  are  valuable  especially 
as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows,  being  superior  to  gluten  feed.  As  a 
feed  for  horses,  some  authorities  reckon  them  as  equivalent 


THE   CEREAL   BY-PRODUCTS  193 

to  oats  in  feeding  value.  Relatively,  they  are  usually  cheaper 
than  either  oats  or  bran.  They  also  may  be  used  satis- 
factorily for  fattening  animals,  if  their  price  will  permit. 
Owing  to  their  fibrous  nature,  only  small  amounts  can  be 
utilized  by  the  hog.  Distillers'  grains  should  always  be 
used  as  a  supplement  to  less  nitrogenous  concentrates. 

Distillers'  dried  grains  are  often  sold  on  the  market  under 
a  different  name,  such  as  gluten  feed  or  some  trade  name,  in 
order  to  hide  their  true  identity,  as  many  people  would  not 
buy  them  under  their  true  name. 

Hominy  feed,  meal,  or  chop  is  a  mixture  of  the  bran 
coating,  the  germ,  and  a  part  of  the  starchy  portion  of  the 
corn  kernel  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture 
of  hominy  for  human  consumption.  It  contains  about  11 
per  cent  protein,  5  per  cent  crude  fiber,  65  per  cent  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  and  7  per  cent  fat.  It  is  quite  similar  to  corn 
in  chemical  composition  and  in  feeding  value.  However, 
it  is  no  more  valuable  than  corn,  and  consequently  should  not 
be  purchased  unless  it  is  cheaper  than  corn.  It  is  especially 
valuable  for  fattening  animals  and  for  milk  cows,  but  its 
use  is  subject  to  the  same  hmitations  as  that  of  corn. 

WHEAT    BY-PRODUCTS 

Most  of  the  wheat  by-products  come  from  the  manufacture 
of  flour  for  human  consumption.  The  principal  by-products 
used  in  stock  feeding  are  bran,  shorts,  middhngs,  red  dog 
flour,  shipstuff,  and  wheat  screenings. 

When  wheat  first  enters  the  flour  mill,  it  is  screened, 
separating  out  the  broken  and  shrunken  kernels,  weed  seed, 
dirt,  and  other  impurities.  The  screenings  are  often  sold 
on  the  market  as  stock  feed  under  the  name  of  wheat  screen- 


194 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


ings.  The  cleaned  wheat  then  passes  through  a  series  of 
rollers  and  on  to  bolting  cloth  which  bolts  out  the  finer 
particles  or  flour.  The  residue,  consisting  of  the  coarser 
particles,  is  divided  by  bolting  into  bran,  shorts,  middUngs, 
and  red  dog  flour.     Ordinarily  from  25  to  33  per  cent  of  the 

weight  of  the  wheat 
remains  in  the  form 
of  these  ])y-])r()(l- 
ucts. 

Bran  consists  of 
the  three  outer  coats 
of  the  grain  and 
the  rich  protein  or 
aleurone  layer  just 
underneath.  Some- 
times screenings  are 
mixed  with  the 
bran,  which  de- 
creases its  feeding 
value.  Bran  is 
probably  used  more  extensively  in  feeding  Uvestock  than 
any  other  single  by-product.  The  chemical  composition 
of  wheat  bran  is  as  follov/s :  water,  10.0  per  cent ;  ash, 
6.2  per  cent;  crude  protein,  16.1  per  cent;  crude  fiber, 
10.0  per  cent ;  nitrogen-free  extract,  53.3  per  cent ;  and  fat, 
4.4  per  cent.  Its  net  energy  value  is  48.2  therms  per  100 
pounds.  It  is  fairly  high  in  protein,  high  in  mineral  matter, 
except  lime,  and  fair  in  carbohydrates  and  fat.  In  general, 
its  feeding  value  is  much  higher  than  its  chemical  analysis 
indicates.  It  has  the  requisite  bulk  necessary  to  make  it 
feed  well  with  such  highly  concentrated  feeds  as  corn,  and  it 


Fig.  46.  —  Section  of  wheat  kernel.  (Jordan, 
The  Feeding  of  Animals.)  1,  seed  pod  and  seed 
coatings  ;   4,  gluten  layer  ;  5,  starch  cells. 


THE    CEREAL   BY-PRODUCTS  195 

also  has  a  slight  laxative  effect  upon  the  animal  which  is 
much  valued  by  feeders.  It  ordinarily  is  not  used  as  the 
sole  concentrate,  but  as  a  supplement  to  some  more  con- 
centrated feed. 

For  Growing  Stock.  —  Bran  is  an  excellent  supplementary 
feed  for  nearly  all  classes  of  growing  stock.  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  it  is  quite  deficient  in  lime, 
which  is  essential  to  the  proper  growth  of  the  bones.  Henry 
and  Morrison  ^  state  that  horses  heavily  fed  on  bran  some- 
times suffer  from  a  form  of  rickets,  known  to  horsemen  as 
^'  bran  disease,"  which  seriously  affects  their  bones.  Thus 
bran  should  be  fed  with  feeds  which  are  rich  in  lime,  such  as 
the  legumes. 

For  calves  and  growing  cattle,  bran  and  ground  corn  in 
the  proportion  of  two  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter 
make  an  excellent  combination  of  concentrates  if  it  is  not 
too  expensive.  It  also  should  be  used  when  feeding  heavy 
feeds,  as  barley  or  rye  meal.  Young  cattle  which  are  being 
wintered  without  the  use  of  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other  legume 
hay  will  make  good  use  of  two  or  three  pounds  of  bran  per 
day.  Because  of  its  physical  effect,  bran  is  considered  a 
very  valuable  addition  to  the  ration  of  colts.  As  stated  pre- 
viously, it  should  be  fed  with  feeds  which  are  rich  in  lime. 
Bran  is  too  bulky  and  fibrous  to  constitute  a  large  part  of 
the  pig's  ration.  At  present  prices  it  is  also  entirely  too 
expensive  for  this  purpose.  It  may  be  used  to  advantage 
for  young  lambs  if  fed  in  small  amounts.  It  is  too  bulky 
to  be  used  as  the  major  part  of  the  concentrates. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  As  the  chemical  composition  and 
the  energy  value  indicate,  bran  is  not  a  fattening  feed.     On 

1  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  p.  157. 


196  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

account  of  its  beneficial  physical  effect,  bran,  if  not  too  ex- 
pensive, may  form  one-half  of  the  concentrates  for  fattening 
cattle  during  the  first  stages  of  fattening,  after  which  it  should 
be  gradually  decreased  until  only  a  small  amount,  if  any,  is 
being  used,  on  account  of  its  bulk  and  high  content  of  crude 
fiber.  Bran  is  usually  too  expensive  to  use  in  the  ration  of 
fattening  animals,  especially  if  they  have  clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  Both  on  account  of  its  chemical 
composition  and  its  physical  effect,  bran  is  adapted  for  use 
in  the  rations  of  all  classes  of  breeding  animals.  Especially 
is  this  true  when  the  ration  is  of  a  heavy,  concentrated  na- 
ture, or  when  no  legume  roughage  is  available. 

For  Milk  €ows.  —  Bran,  owing  to  the  protein  and  mineral 
matter  which  it  contains,  its  laxative  nature,  and  the  bulk 
which  it  imparts  to  the  ration,  is  particularly  well  adapted 
for  use  in  the  ration  of  the  dairy  cow.  With  a  non-nitrog- 
enous roughage,  bran  may  constitute  one-half  of  the  con- 
centrates of  the  ration.  With  a  nitrogenous  roughage,  such 
as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  bran  need  not  form  over  one-third 
the  concentrates.  Bran,  ground  oats,  and  ground  corn  in 
equal  parts  make  a  satisfactory  ration  unless  too  expensive, 
in  which  case  the  amount  of  bran  and  oats  may  be  decreased 
and  cottonseed  meal  or  Unseed  meal  added  to  furnish  pro- 
tein and  mineral  matter.  Bran  is  regarded  by  many  dairy- 
men as  an  essential  constitutent  of  the  ration  unless  good 
alfalfa  hay  is  available. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  Bran  is  too  bulky  and  contains  too 
much  crude  fiber  to  be  used  in  the  ration  of  work  horses 
except  in  small  amounts.  A  bran  mash  seasoned  with  salt 
and  ginger  should  be  fed  once  or  twice  a  week  to  horses  at 
hard  work  in  order  to  keep  their  bowels  loose. 


THE   CEREAL   BY-PRODUCTS  197 

Shorts  are  the  fine  particles  of  the  outer  and  inner  bran 
separated  from  the  coarse  bran  and  the  white,  or  flour  mid- 
dlings. The  sweepings,  dust,  and  ground  weed  seed  of  the 
flour  mills  are  often  added.  Shorts  are  also  known  as  ''  stand- 
ard middlings,"  or  '^  brown  middlings." 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  shorts  is  as  follows : 
water,  10.0  per  cent ;  crude  protein,  17.8  per  cent ;  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  55.9  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  7.0  per  cent ;  fat, 
5.0  per  cent ;    and  mineral  matter,  4.3  per  cent. 

Inasmuch  as  shorts  and  middhngs  are  similar  in  feeding 
value,  the  discussion  of  the  feeding  value  of  middlings  may 
be  accepted  as  also  applying  to  shorts,  if  one  remembers 
that  shorts  are  considerably  lower  in  feeding  value. 

Middlings  consist  of  the  finer  bran  particles  and  some  low 
grade  flour.  The  amount  of  flour  is  the  distinguishing  differ- 
ence between  middlings  and  shorts,  the  former  containing  a 
much  larger  amount  than  the  latter.  Middlings  are  usually 
designated  as  ^'  flour  "  middhngs,  or  as  ''  white  "  middhngs, 
in  order  to  distinguish  them  from  standard  middlings  or 
shorts.  Inasmuch  as  flour  or  white  middhngs  contain  more 
low  grade  flour  and  less  bran  and  sweepings  than  shorts  or 
standard  middlings,  they  are  considerably  higher  in  feeding 
value  and  command  a  higher  price  on  the  market. 

The  chemical  composition  of  flour  middhngs  is  as  follows : 
water,  10.0  per  cent ;  crude  protein,  18.8  per  cent ;  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  59.9  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  3.3  per  cent ;  fat, 
4.8  per  cent ;   and  mineral  matter,  3.2  per  cent. 

Middlings  have  more  starchy  material,  less  crude  fiber,  a 
little  more  protein,  and  less  mineral  matter  than  bran.  Like 
bran,  they  are  deficient  in  calcium  or  lime.  Their  energy 
value  is  considerably  greater  than  that  of  bran. 


198  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Middlings  (and  short.s)  are  preeminently  a  feed  for  hogs. 
When  cheap  enougli,  they  may  make  up  a  large  proportion 
of  the  rations  of  gro\\ing  pigs  and  brood  sows.  With  corn, 
they  make  a  very  satisfactory  ration  for  fattening  hogs, 
especially  when  they  have  access  to  pasture.  Middhngs 
may  constitute  from  25  to  50  per  cent  of  the  concentrates 
of  such  rations.  An  excess  of  middhngs  will  tend  to  pro- 
duce soft  pork.  Hogs,  when  fed  large  amounts  of  middlings, 
should  have  access  to  a  mineral  mixture  to  make  up  the 
deficiency  of  hme  in  the  ration. 

Middlings  may  be  fed  to  cattle  and  sheep  along  with 
other  concentrates,  but  usually  other  feeds  are  better  for 
this  purpose.  Mixed  with  ground  grain,  they  are  often  used 
for  d^airy  cattle.  They  are  not  used  for  horse  feeding  to 
any  great  extent,  and  never  should  be  used  except  in  com- 
bination with  other  grain,  as  they  tend  to  form  a  pasty  mass 
in  the  stomach  and  cause  coHc. 

Red  dog  flour  is  low-grade  flour  usually  containing  the 
wheat  germ.  It  is  rich  in  crude  protein,  carbohydrates, 
and  fat.  It  is  not  as  high  in  ash  as  bran  or  middlings.  It 
is  adapted  especially  for  hog  feeding,  being  considered  by 
many  stockmen  as  even  superior  to  middlings  for  this 
purpose.  Consequently,  it  usually  sells  for  a  higher  price 
than  middlings.  It  also  may  be  used  in  about  the  same 
manner  as  middlings  as  a  part  of  the  rations  of  horses,  dairy 
cows,  and  calves. 

Until  one  has  had  some  experience  ^\ith  shorts,  middlings, 
and  red  dog  flour,  it  is  often  quite  difficult  to  distinguish 
one  from  the  others.  Perhaps  the  best  way  is  to  taste  a 
little  of  the  feed.  Red  dog  flour  immediately  rubs  up  into  a 
fine  paste  on  the  tongue.     Flour  middlings  rub  up  into  a 


THE   CEREAL   BY-PRODUCTS  199 

coarser  paste,  due  to  the  ground  bran  in  them.  Shorts  do 
not  form  a  paste  at  all.  After  tasting  all  three  of  these 
feeds,  one  after  the  other,  one  usually  has  no  trouble  in 
distinguishing    them. 

Shipstuff  is  a  mixture  of  all  or  any  of  the  by-products 
obtained  from  the  milling  of  the  wheat  berry.  Its  feeding 
value,  of  course,  depends  upon  the  products  which  enter 
into  its  composition.  In  some  localities  the  term  shipstuff 
is  used  to  designate  middlings  or  shorts. 

Wheat  screenings,  as  their  name  implies,  consist  of  the 
broken  and  shrunken  wheat  kernels,  weed  seeds,  and  other 
foreign  material  which  result  from  the  cleaning  and  grading 
of  wheat.  Their  feeding  value,  of  course,  depends  largely 
upon  the  proportion  of  wheat  to  weed  seeds  and  dirt. 
Screenings  should  always  be  finely  ground  in  order  to  prevent 
the  introduction  of  weeds  on  the  farm.  The  screenings  are 
often  added  to  the  bran  and  sold  either  as  pure  bran  or  as 
''  bran  with  screenings."  Screenings  are  used  also  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  many  commercial  mixed  feeds. 

BARLEY   BY-PRODUCTS 

The  principal  by-products  of  barley  are  obtained  from  the 
breweries.  They  are  brewers'  grains  (wet  and  dry)  and  malt 
sprouts. 

Brewers'  Grains.  —  In  the  manufacture  of  beer,  the  barley 
grains  are  first  soaked  in  warm  water  until  they  are  soft. 
They  are  then  held  at  a  comparatively  high  temperature  and 
allowed  to  sprout,  during  which  process  a  considerable  part 
of  the  starch  of  the  grain  is  changed  by  the  action  of  enzymes 
to  maltose  or  malt  sugar.  After  sprouting,  the  grains  are 
quickly  dried  and  the  little  rootlets  are  removed.     These 


Fig. 


47  —  Weeds  ero wince  from  seed  found  in  a  commercial  fee  1  con- 
taining screenings.     (.Ver.-  o:.t  Experi:i.ent  Station.) 


200 


THE   CEREAL    BY-PRODUCTS  201 

constitute  the  feed,  malt  sprouts.  The  residue  after  the 
rootlets  are  removed  is  known  as  '^  malt."  The  malt  is 
extracted  with  water  to  remove  the  soluble  sugar  which  is 
used  as  a  source  of  the  alcohol  of  the  beer.  The  freshly 
extracted  malt  is  known  as  '^  wet  brewers'  grains."  After 
dr3dng  they  are  called  "  dried  brewers'  grains."  Brewers' 
grains  are  relatively  higher  in  protein  than  barley. 

Cattle  of  all  ages  relish  brewers'  grains.  They  rank  high 
as  a  source  of  protein,  containing  25.6  per  cent.  They  may 
be  fed  in  wet  form  if  within  a  reasonable  distance  of  the  brew- 
ery and  if  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  feed-boxes  tight  and 
clean  so  that  none  may  escape  and  spoil  under  the  mangers. 
Unless  proper  sanitary  measures  are  taken,  however,  the 
wet  grains  should  not  be  used.  Twenty  to  thirty  pounds 
per  day  along  with  corn  may  be  fed.  Brewers'  grains 
may  be  fed  with  profit  to  young  growing  cattle,  but 
usually  they  cannot  be  fed  profitably  to  fattening  cattle 
unless  they  are  very  cheap.  Sheep  do  not  rehsh  the  wet 
grains. 

In  the  dry  form  they  rank  along  with  such  feeds  as  bran 
and  linseed  meal  for  dairy  cows  and  they  are  no  more  perish- 
able. Four  or  five  pounds  daily  may  be  fed  along  with  corn 
or  corn  meal.  Instances  have  come  to  the  notice  of  the 
author  in  which  physicians  have  refused  to  indorse  milk 
from  dairies  using  dried  brewers'  grains.  However,  such 
prejudice  is  entirely  unwarranted.  Dried  brewers'  grains 
are  nearly  as  satisfactory  for  horses  as  oats.  One-third  to 
one-half  of  the  concentrates  may  consist  of  dried  brewers' 
grains.  On  account  of  their  high  content  of  crude  fiber, 
they  are  not  suitable  for  hogs.  The  dried  grains  may  be 
used  in  the  ration  of  breeding  ewes. 


202  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Malt  sprouts  are  the  dried  rootlets  obtained  from  the 
barley  used  for  the  manufacture  of  malt.  They  are  not 
very  palatable,  but  they  contain  a  considerable  amount 
of  crude  protein,  —  26  per  cent,  a  large  proportion  of  which 
is  in  the  form  of  non-protein.  They  may  be  fed  in  moderate 
quantities,  2  or  3  pounds  per  day,  to  milch  cows.  They  also 
may  be  used  in  limited  quantities  in  the  rations  of  other  farm 
animals.  They  usually  are  soaked  in  water  several  hours 
before  feeding.  They  should  always  be  fed  with  more 
palatable  feeds. 

MISCELLANEOUS  CEREAL  BY-PRODUCTS 

Oats  By-products.  — The  principal  by-products  of  oats  are 
shorts,  middUngs,  and  hulls,  from  the  oatmeal  and  breakfast 
food  factories,  and  oat  clippings,  obtained  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cUpped  oats. 

Oat  shorts  consist  of  the  seed  coats  of  the  oat  grain  lying 
immediately  inside  the  hull,  being  a  fuzzy  material  carrying 
with  it  considerable  portions  of  the  fine,  floury  part  of  the 
groat  (i.e.  the  hulless  oat  berry)  obtained  in  the  milling  of 
rolled  oats. 

Oat  middlings  are  the  floury  portions  of  the  oat  groat 
obtained  in  the  milling  of  rolled  oats.  Oat  shorts  and 
middlings  are  quite  valuable  as  feeds  when  obtainable. 
They  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  wheat  shorts  and 
middlings. 

Oat  hulls,  although  not  a  concentrate,  can  best  be  dis- 
cussed here.  The  hulls  are  the  outer  chaffy  coverings  of 
the  oat  grains.  They  are  quite  low  in  digestible  nutrients 
and  are  no  more  valuable  for  feeding  than  so  much  straw. 
Oat  hulls  and  corn  are  often  ground  together  and  sold  as 


THE   CEREAL   BY-PRODUCTS  203 

''  corn  and  oat  feed."  They  are  also  used  in  many  mixed 
and  patent  feeds.  It  is  often  very  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  ground  oats  and  ground  oat  hulls  when  mixed  with 
other  ground  feeds.  Consequently,  the  farmer  should  exer- 
cise great  care  in  purchasing  feeds  of  this  kind. 

Oat  dust  consists  of  the  minute,  hairlike  particles  which 
adhere  to  the  end  of  the  hulless  oat  kernel.  It  is  usually 
used  as  a  constituent  of  commercial  mixed  feeds.  It  ranks 
between  oat  middlings  and  oat  hulls  in  feeding  value. 

Oat  clippings  or  clipped  oat  hy-product  are  the  light, 
chaffy  material  broken  from  the  ends  of  the  hulls  in  the 
process  of  chpping,  together  with  hulls,  light,  immature 
oats,  and  dust.  Their  feeding  value  is  very  low  and  they 
are  often  used  as  an  adulterant  of  other  feeds,  and  as  a 
constituent  of  many  mixed  commercial  feeds,  especially 
molasses  feeds. 

Rye  By-products.  —  The  principal  by-products  from  rye 
are  bran,  shorts,  and  middlings,  obtained  in  the  manufacture 
of  rye  flour,  and  distillers'  slops  and  grains,  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  whisky  and  grain  alcohol. 

Bran,  Shorts,  and  Middlings.  —  In  origin  and  chemical 
composition,  rye  bran,  shorts,  and  middUngs  closely  resemble 
the  corresponding  by-products  of  wheat.  However,  in  feed- 
ing value  they  are  much  inferior.  If  fed  in  large  quantities 
to  milch  cows,  they  affect  the  flavor  of  the  product.  Rye 
shorts  or  middlings  when  fed  to  hogs  produce  a  soft,  inferior 
quality  of  pork.  The  quantity  of  these  by-products  avail- 
able is  small,  owing  to  the  small  amount  of  rye  bread 
used.  Their  use  is  becoming  more  and  more  general, 
however.  In  parts  of  Europe  they  occupy  an  important 
place  as  stock  feeds.     If   used   they  should   l)e  purchased 


204 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


considerably  more  cheaply  than   the  corresponding  wheat 

by-products. 

Rye  feed.  —  Rye  bran,   shorts,  and  middlings  are   often 

mixed  together  and  marketed  as  rye  feed. 

Distillers'  grains  from  rye  are  much  inferior  to  those  from 

corn.     However,  most  of  the  grains  on  the  market  consist 

largely  of  corn.  The 
feed  should  bear  the 
name  of  the  cereal 
predominating. 

Rice  By-products.  — 
The  rice  by-products 
are  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  the  South, 
but  of  little  importance 
in  the  corn-belt. 

Rice  hulls  are  the 
outer  chaffy  coverings 
of  the  rice  grain.  Their 
feeding  value  is  not  only 
very  low  but  they  are 
dangerous  to  the  animal, 
as  they  irritate  the  walls 

of  the  digestive  tract.     They  are  sometimes  used  in  mixed 

commercial  feeds. 

Rice  bran  is  the  cuticle  beneath  the  hull.     It   soon  be- 
comes rancid  and  unpalatable,  but  is  a  good  feed  for  cattle 

and  horses  when  not  rancid. 

Rice  polish  is  the  finely  powder  3d  material  obtained   in 

poHshing  the  kernel.     It  has  a  feedina;  value  about  equal  to 

corn. 


Fio.  48.  —  Buckwheat  in  bloom.     (Livinji;- 
ston,  Field  Crop  Production.) 


THE  CEREAL  BY-PRODUCTS  205 

Buckwheat  By-products.^  —  The  by-products  of  buck- 
wheat are  shorts  and  middhngs,  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  buckwheat  flour.  They  are  that  portion  of  the 
buckwheat  grain  immediately  inside  of  the  hull  after  separa- 
tion from  the  flour.  They  are  considerably  higher  in  protein 
than  wheat  shorts  and  middUngs.  They  are  valuable  feeds, 
especially  for  dairy  cows  and  hogs.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  ground  hulls,  which  are  worthless,  are  not  mixed 
with  them.  The  ground  hulls  are  sometimes  mixed  with 
the  middUngs  and  sold  as  buckwheat  bran  or  feed. 

1  Although  buckwheat  is  not  a  cereal  botauically,  it  is  usually  classed  aa 
such  for  commercial  purposes. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    OIL    BY-PRODUCTS 

The  oil  bj^-products  are  the  residues  from  the  oil-bearing 
seeds  after  the  removal  of  the  oil.  The  principal  oil  by-prod- 
ucts in  this  country  are  obtained  from  flaxseed  and  cotton- 
seed. Of  minor  importance  are  soybean  cake,  sesame  cake, 
peanut  cake,  sunflower-seed  cake,  rape-seed  cake,  coconut 
cake,  and  corn-germ  cake.  Most  of  these  latter  are  of  more 
importance  in  Europe. 

FLAXSEED    BY-PRODUCTS 

The  by-products  of  flaxseed  are  ''  old  process  "  linseed 
oil  cake  or  meal,  *'  new  process  "  linseed  oil  meal,  flax  feed, 
flax  plant  by-product,  and  unscreened  flax  oil  feed. 

Linseed  oil  cake  or  meal  often  is  spoken  of  as  simply 
oil  cake  or  meal,  or  linseed  cake  or  meal.  Two  methods  are 
used  in  obtaining  the  oil  from  flaxseed.  In  the  first,  or 
''  old  process  "  method  the  seeds  are  crushed,  heated  wdth 
steam,  and  the  oil  removed  by  subjecting  the  crushed  seeds 
to  an  enormous  pressure.  After  the  removal  of  the  oil  by 
the  pressure  process,  the  residue  is  a  hard,  board-like  cake 
about  1  inch  thick,  1  foot  wide,  and  three  feet  long.  It 
may  be  sold  in  this  form  as  old  process  Unseed  cake  or,  as 
is  more  often  the  case,  it  may  be  ground  to  a  meal  of  varying 
degrees  of  fineness  and  sold  as  old  process  linseed  meal.     It  is 

206 


THE    OIL   BY-PRODUCTS  207 

advisable  to  buy  it  in  nut  or  pea  sizes,  as  when  sold  in  the 
form  of  a  fine  meal  it  is  easily  adulterated  with  flax  screen- 
ings and  when  sold  in  the  cake  it  is  difficult  to  break  up  for 
feeding,  without  the  use  of  a  power  grinder. 

In  the  second,  or  ''  new  process,"  method  the  flaxseed  is 
crushed,  heated  with  steam,  and  placed  in  large  percolators. 
It  is  then  treated  with  naphtha,  which  dissolves  out  the  oil. 
It  is  again  treated  with  steam  to  drive  out  the  naphtha.  It 
is  then  dried,  sacked,  and  marketed  as  new  process  hnseed 
meal.  The  first  method  is  most  commonly  used  in  this 
country.  Consequently,  most  of  the  Hnseed  meal  on  the 
American  market  is  old  process.  The  extraction  method 
removes  the  oil  more  thoroughly  than  the  other  method. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  old  process  Unseed 
meal  is  as  follows :  water,  8.5  per  cent ;  ash,  5.2  per  cent ; 
crude  protein,  34.3  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  8.5  per  cent ;  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  36.4  per  cent;  and  fat,  7.1  per  cent.  The 
net  energy  value  is  78.9  therms  per  100  pounds.  New  pro- 
cess linseed  meal  is  higher  in  protein,  but  contains  only  a 
small  amount  of  fat.  Although  there  is  more  protein  in  new 
process  linseed  meal,  there  is  but  Uttle  more  of  it  digestible 
than  in  the  old  process  meal.  The  greater  amount  of  fat 
in  the  old  process  meal  makes  it  more  valuable  than  the 
new  process  meal  for  feeding  purposes. 

Linseed  cake  or  meal  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  use- 
ful by-products.  It  is  not  only  very  high  in  feeding  value 
but,  unhke  cottonseed  cake  or  meal,  it  is  a  safe  and  usually 
a  profitable  feed  ^vith  any  kind  of  animals.  In  addition 
to  its  high  feeding  value,  it  is  very  appetizing,  has  a  slightly 
laxative  effect,  and  imparts  to  the  hair  of  the  animals  a 
glossy  look  indicative  of  thrift.     As  its  chemical  composition 


208  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

indicates,  linseed  meal  should  not  be  used  as  the  sole  con- 
centrate of  the  ration,  but  in  connection  with  less  nitrogenous 
concentrates. 

For  Growing  Stock.  —  Linseed  meal  is  one  of  the  best 
supplementary  concentrates  for  growing  animals,  both  on 
account  of  its  high  feeding  value  and  its  physical  effect. 
It  is  a  very  important  addition  to  the  ration  of  the  skim- 
milk  calf.  For  growing  cattle,  it  may  form  as  much  as  ten 
per  cent  of  the  concentrates  of  the  ration  when  not  too  ex- 
pensive. It  is  also  very  good  for  colts  and  may  be  substituted 
for  a  part  of  the  oats  in  the  ration.  It  is  usually  fed  to  secure 
finish  and  bloom  in  fitting  horses  for  show  or  sale.  It  may 
be  fed  in  amounts  up  to  one  pound  per  day.  Oil  meal  may 
be  used  for  pigs,  but  other  nitrogenous  supplements,  as 
middUngs  and  tankage,  usually  are  preferred.  It  is  excellent 
in  the  ration  of  young  lambs,  both  before  and  after  weaning. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  For  fattening  steers,  two  or  three 
pounds  per  day  can  be  given  to  advantage.  It  is  often  fed 
near  the  close  of  the  feeding  period,  on  account  of  its  bene- 
ficial effect  upon  the  appetite,  digestion,  and  finish  of  the 
animal.  It  is  used  quite  extensively  with  show  cattle. 
For  fattening  hogs,  linseed  meal  may  be  fed  in  small  quanti- 
ties, approximating  10  to  20  per  cent  of  the  concentrates 
to  good  advantage.  Large  quantities  seem  to  affect  the 
appetite  of  the  hog  adversely.  Usually  tankage  or  middlings 
is  preferred.  For  fattening  lambs  and  sheep,  it  may  be  used 
to  advantage  up  to  one-third  of  a  pound  per  day  unless 
the  ration  consists  of  corn  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  in 
which  case  its  use  is  not  profitable. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  Linseed  meal  is  one  of  the  best 
nitrogenous  supplements  for  breeding  animals  of  all  classes. 


THE   OIL   BY-PRODUCTS  209 

Its  laxative  effect  and  high  protein  content  make  it  valuable 
for  this  class  of  animals. 

For  Milch  Cows.  —  Up  to  three  pounds  per  day,  linseed 
meal  will  improve  almost  any  dairy  ration.  An  excess  of 
linseed  meal  may  affect  the  quality  of  the  butter,  as  it  tends 
to  produce  a  soft  butter. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  One-half  to  one  pound  may  be  fed  to 
advantage  to  horses.  McCampbell  at  the  Kansas  Experi- 
ment Station  ^  found  that  one  pound  of  linseed  meal  was 
equivalent  to  four  pounds  of  bran  when  fed  with  com,  oats, 
and  prairie  hay.  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  when  they 
are  on  pasture.  This  feed  gives  the  horse  a  gloss  and  sleek- 
ness of  coat  which  materially  improves  the  appearance. 
It  is  very  good  to  restore  overworked  or  overfed  horses  to 
good  condition.  Some  horses  cannot  use  it,  as  it  scours  them 
too  much. 

Flax  feed  or  screenings  consist  of  a  variable  mixture  of 
inferior  flaxseed,  weed  seeds,  stalks,  leaves,  dirt,  etc.  Like 
all  screenings,  it  should  be  finely  ground  to  destroy  the  vi- 
ability of  the  weed  seeds  present.  It  is  not  recommended 
at  the  prices  usually  asked  for  it.  It  is  often  used  as  a  con- 
stituent of  mixed  commercial  feeds,  and  is  sometimes  sold 
under  fancy  trade  names,  as  "  flax  flakes,"  "  linomeal,"  etc. 

Flax  plant  by-product  consists  of  flax  pods,  inferior  flax 
seeds,  and  portions  of  the  stem.  It  is  usually  used  in  mixed 
commercial  feeds,  although  it  is  sometimes  sold  as  "  flax 
bran."     Its  feeding  value  is  quite  low. 

Unscreened  flax  oil  feed  is  the  by-product  resulting 
from  the  extraction  of  the  oil  from  unscreened  flaxseed.  It 
is  lower  in  feeding  value  than  oil  meal  from  the  screened  seed. 

1  Bui.  186. 


210  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

COTTONSEED   BY-PRODUCTS 

The  principal  cottonseed  by-products  are  cottonseed  cake 
or  meal,  cold  pressed  cottonseed,  cottonseed  feed,  cotton- 
seed hulls,  and  cottonseed  hull  bran. 

Cottonseed  Cake,  or  Meal.  —  Cottonseed  cake  is  the  resi- 
due remaining  after  most  of  the  hulls  and  lint  have  been 
removed  and  the  cottonseed  have  been  crushed,  heated,  and 
the  oil  pressed  out  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  manufacture 
of  old  process  linseed  meal  previously  described.  Cotton- 
seed meal  is  the  finely  ground  cake,  although  it  is  sometimes 
sold  in  the  pea  or  nut  size,  especially  in  the  West  or  where  it 
is  fed  in  the  open  and  liable  to  be  blowTi  away  by  the  wind. 

Cottonseed  meal  should  be  a  Ught  yellow  in  color.  A 
dark  color  indicates  the  presence  of  ground  hulls  which  often 
are  used  as  an  adulterant.  This  adulteration  may  be 
detected  definitely  by  putting  a  small  quantity  of  the  meal 
in  a  glass  tumbler,  pouring  hot  water  over  it,  quickly  stirring, 
allowing  it  to  settle  for  a  few  seconds,  and  then  pouring  off 
the  unsettled  portion.  If  the  residue  is  darker  in  color  than 
the  untreated  meal,  ground  hulls  are  present.  If  successive 
treatments  intensify  the  dark  color,  the  adulteration  is  pro- 
portionate. Wet,  musty,  or  moldy  meal  should  never  be 
used  under  any  conditions. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  cottonseed  meal  is 
as  follows :  water,  7.0  per  cent ;  ash,  6.7  per  cent ;  crude 
protein,  44.6  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  6.5  per  cent ;  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  25.2  per  cent ;  and  fat,  10.0  per  cent.  Its  net 
energy  value  is  84.2  therms  per  100  pounds.  It  is  one  of 
the  richest  feeds  in  protein  and  energy.  It  is  also  high  in 
fat  and  ash.     Cottonseed  meal  should  be  purchased  on  the 


THE    OIL    BY-PRODUCTS  211 

basis  of  its  protein  content.  There  are  three  grades  of  it 
on  the  market,  viz.,  choice,  prime,  and  good.  Choice 
cottonseed  meal  contains  41  per  cent  or  more  of  protein; 
prime  contains  38.6  to  41  per  cent ;  and  good  contains  36 
to  38.6  per  cent.  Cottonseed  meal  should  not  contain  less 
than  36  per  cent  protein ;  if  it  does,  it  is  adulterated. 

Unlike  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal  is  not  a  safe  feed 
to  use  with  impunity  for  all  classes  of  stock.  If  fed  with 
discretion,  however,  it  often  makes  a  most  profitable  addi- 
tion to  the  ration.  If  fed  in  large  amounts  for  long  periods, 
cottonseed  meal  may  act  as  a  poison  to  the  animal  and,  in 
many  cases,  cause  death.  It  is  particularly  fatal  to  hogs. 
The  nature  of  the  poisonous  principle  has  not  yet  been 
determined.  It  also  has  a  costive  action.  Although  its 
use  may  prove  disastrous  if  fed  carelessly,  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  careful  feeder  should  not  make  use  of  this  highly 
nutritious  feed. 

For  Growing  Animals.  —  Although  high  in  protein  and 
mineral  matter  so  essential  to  satisfactory  growth,  the  general 
use  of  cottonseed  meal  is  not  recommended  for  this  class  of 
farm  animals.  It  should  not  be  used  for  calves  or  pigs. 
For  young  growing  cattle,  two  or  three  pounds  per  day  when 
not  on  pasture  will  promote  growth.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  use  it  in  the  rations  of  colts  or  lambs,  although  it  is  so 
used  sometimes. 

For  Fattening  Animals.  —  Cottonseed  meal  is  a  very  good 
nitrogenous  supplement  for  fattening  cattle.  On  account 
of  its  costive  effect  and  high  protein  content,  it  makes  an 
admirable  addition  to  a  ration  which  contains  corn  and 
corn  silage.  It  may  be  used  up  to  four  or  five  pounds  per 
day;    in  the  South,  much  larger  quantities  are  often  fed. 


212  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

but  in  the  corn-belt,  it  is  not  desirable  to  feed  such  large 
amounts  unless  corn  is  very  expensive. 

As  previously  noted,  hogs  are  especially  susceptible  to 
the  poison  of  cottonseed  meal.  Although  it  can  be  fed  to 
them  without  disastrous  results,  it  is  not  advisable  for  the 
inexperienced  feeder  of  the  corn-belt  to  attempt  to  learn 
how,  as  it  may  prove  a  costly  experience  with  the  results 
not  worth  the  risk.  Recent  experiments  indicate  that 
cottonseed  meal  if  fed  with  copperas  may  be  used  by  hogs 
with  safety.  However,  this  has  not  been  proven  definitely. 
There  is  no  danger  in  hogs  following  steers  which  receive 
cottonseed  meal  in  their  ration. 

Cottonseed  meal  may  be  used  in  the  rations  of  fattening 
lambs  and  sheep,  especially  if  they  are  fed  a  non-nitrogenous 
roughage.  It  is  not  as  satisfactory,  however,  as  linseed 
meal. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  Although  used  for  breeding  stock 
to  a  certain  extent,  the  author  would  not  advise  its  extensive 
use  for  this  class  of  animals.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the 
case  of  pregnant  animals.  When  suckling  their  young  its  use 
may  be  permitted  to  a  certain  extent. 

For  Milk  Cows.  —  In  moderate  amounts,  cottonseed  meal 
is  a  very  satisfactory  addition  to  the  ration  of  dairy  cows. 
Not  over  three  or  four  pounds  daily  should  be  fed,  as  more 
not  only  may  derange  the  digestive  system,  but  will  produce 
a  hard,  tallowy,  poorly  flavored  butter. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  Gay  ^  states  that  cottonseed  meal  is 
now  generally  recommended  as  a  complete  or  partial  sub- 
stitute for  oats,  in  combination  with  corn,  to  cheapen  the 
ration.  Cochel,  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,'* 
1  "  Productive  Horse  Husbandry,"  p.  237,  *  ^^xl  117. 


THE   OIL   BY-PRODUCTS  213 

after  feeding  as  much  as  three  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal 
per  day  to  fattening  draft  horses,  concluded  that  using  cotton- 
seed meal  to  replace  oats  resulted  in  a  cheaper  ration, 
a  larger  gain,  more  economical  gains,  and  a  higher  finish. 
Kennedy,  Robbins,  and  Kildee,  at  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station,^  after  comparing  corn  and  linseed  meal  with  corn 
and  cottonseed  meal  for  work  horses,  concluded  that  cotton- 
seed meal  gave  somewhat  better  results  than  Unseed  meal. 
The  use  of  either  resulted  in  a  substantial  lowering  of  the 
cost  of  maintaining  the  horses. 

Cold  pressed  cottonseed  is  the  product  obtained  by 
subjecting  the  unheated,  undecorticated  seed  {i.e.  the  un- 
hulled  seed)  to  enormous  pressure  to  remove  the  oil.  It 
includes  the  entire  cottonseed,  less  the  lint  and  oil  removed. 
It  may  be  sold  in  large  thin  flakes,  or  it  may  be  ground 
to  a  meal.  It  has  a  lower  feeding  value  than  cottonseed 
meal  as  it  contains  much  more  hulls  and  hnt.  It  contains 
about  27  per  cent  of  protein.  It  may  be  used  in  about  the 
same  ways  as  cottonseed  meal.  It  is  sometimes  sold  as 
*'  caddo  cake." 

Cottonseed  feed  is  a  mixture  of  cottonseed  meal  and 
ground  cottonseed  hulls,  containing  less  than  36  per  cent  of 
protein.  Its  feeding  value  depends  upon  the  proportion 
of  cottonseed  meal  in  it  as  indicated  by  its  per  cent  of  pro- 
tein. Usually,  cottonseed  feed  contains  about  23  per  cent 
of  protein.  Consequently,  the  feeder  could  not  afford  to 
pay  for  it  more  than  one  half  the  value  of  choice  cotton- 
seed meal.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  ordinarily  sells  for  only  a 
few  dollars  per  ton  less  than  choice  cottonseed  meal.  In 
general  it  will  be  more  economical  for  the  corn-belt  farmer 

1  Bui.  109. 


214  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

to  buy  the  better  grades  of  cottonseed  meal  at  a  higher  price, 
rather  than  pay  the  freight  on  the  hulls,  which  have  Uttle 
value  as  a  feed. 

Cottonseed  hulls  are  an  important  by-product  in  the 
South,  where  they  are  used  as  a  roughage.  They  are  little 
fed  in  the  corn-belt  except  as  they  are  used  as  an  adulterant 
of  cottonseed  meal.  They  often  may  be  used  economically 
as  a  part  of  the  roughage  of  the  ration  when  hay  is  very 
expensive.  Their  feeding  value  is  somewhat  less  than  that 
of  straw. 

Cottonseed  hull  bran  consists  of  the  hulls,  free  from 
lint  and  finely  ground.  The  feeding  value  is  about  the 
same  as  that  of  ordinary  cottonseed  hulls. 

MISCELLANEOUS   OIL   BY-PRODUCTS 

Peanut  cake,  or  meal  is  the  residue  after  the  extraction 
of  the  oil  from  the  peanut.  Inasmuch  as  it  contains  about 
48  per  cent  of  crude  protein  when  hulled,  it  is  very  valuable 
as  a  nitrogenous  supplement.  It  is  used  little  in  this  country, 
but  is  used  extensively  in  Europe. 

Soybean  cake,  or  meal  is  the  residue  after  the  extraction 
of  the  oil  from  soybeans.  It  contains  about  43  per  cent  of 
protein  and  is  as  valuable  for  feeding  as  cottonseed  meal. 
It  is  imported  from  China  and  Japan  and  used  to  a  consider- 
able extent  along  the  Pacific  coast,  particularly  as  a  feed 
for  dairy  cows  and  for  poultry,  although  it  may  be  used  for 
the  other  farm  animals.  It  is  not  used  to  any  extent  in  the 
East  and  Middle  West. 

Coconut  cake,  or  meal  is  the  residue  remaining  after 
extraction  of  the  oil  from  the  dried  meat  of  the  coconut. 
It  is  used  some  in  the  East  but  more  extensively  on  the  Pacific 


THE   OIL   BY-PRODUCTS  215 

coast.  It  contains  20  per  cent  or  more  of  protein.  It  is  a 
very  palatable  feed  and,  if  cheap  enough  in  price,  may  be  used 
for  all  classes  of  farm  animals.  It  is  especially  recommended 
for  dairy  cows,  as  it  produces  a  fine  butter  of  considerable 
firmness.  It  has  the  disadvantage  of  becoming  rancid  in 
a  short  time  in  warm  weather. 

Sunflower  seed  cake  is  the  residue  remaining  after 
extraction  of  the  oil  from  the  sunflower  seed.  It  is  used 
mostly  in  Russia.     It  contains  about  39  per  cent  of  protein. 

Rape  seed  cake  is  the  residue  remaining  after  extraction 
of  the  oil  from  rape  seed.  It  is  quite  high  in  protein,  33 
per  cent. 

Sesame  seed  cake  is  the  residue  after  extraction  of  the 
oil  from  the  sesame  seed.  Like  the  other  oil  by-products  it 
is  high  in  protein,  40  per  cent. 

Corn  oil  meal,  or  germ  meal  has  already  been  discussed 
under   "  Corn  By-products." 

Peanut  hulls  are  sometimes  ground  and  sold  as  "peanut 
bran,"  or  used  as  a  constituent  of  mixed  commercial  feeds. 
Their  feeding  value  is  lower  than  that  of  straw. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  PACKINGHOUSE  BY-PRODUCTS 

The  packinghouse  by-products  produced  in  the  ])ig; 
slaughter  houses,  which  are  of  use  for  feeding  purposes,  con- 
sist of  blood,  bone,  and  meat  scraps.  These  are  worked  into 
various  forms,  but  those  of  the  most  importance  to  the 
stock  feeder  are  tankage  or  meat  meal,  dried  blood  (blood 
meal,  blood  flour,  etc.),  meat  scraps,  crackhngs,  and  ground 
bone  or  bone  meal. 

Tankage  and  meat  meal  are  the  same  thing.  Some 
manufacturers,  who  are  equipped  to  make  up  a  special  meat 
product  of  this  character  for  feeding  purposes,  market 
their  product  under  one  name  and  some  under  another.  In 
the  main  essentials  there  is  no  difference  between  tankage, 
which  for  feeding  purposes  usually  is  designated  as  ''Digester 
Tankage,"  and  meat  meal.  In  fact,  some  firms  sell  it  as 
"  Meat  Meal  Digester  Tankage." 

A  proper  feeding  tankage  is  made  from  meat  trimmings, 
which  are  thoroughly  cooked  for  several  hours  in  pressure 
tanks  under  50  to  60  pounds  live  steam  pressure.  This  cook- 
ing, together  with  a  subsequent  pressing  of  the  material,  re- 
moves the  principal  part  of  the  grease,  after  which  the  residue 
is  thoroughly  dried  under  high  heat  in  dryers  especially  de- 
signed for  that  purpose.  After  being  dried,  this  selected 
material  is  ground  and  screened  over  special  equipment 
designed  to  put  it  in  the  best  possible  mechanical  condition 

216 


THE  PACKINGHOUSE  BY-PRODUCTS  217 

for  feeding  purposes.  Of  course,  the  high  heat  to  which 
tankage  is  subjected  both  during  cooking  and  drying  steriUzes 
it  completely.  Thus,  there  is  no  danger  of  transmitting  dis- 
ease to  a  healthy  animal  through  feeding  properly  prepared 
tankage,  or  meat  meal.  No  condemned  carcasses  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  higher  grades  of  these  feeds,  al- 
though they  are  often  used  in  the  lower  grades  which  are 
usually  used  for  fertilizer.  Sometimes  the  lower  grades  are 
sold  for  feeding  purposes.  Their  use,  however,  is  not  ad- 
visable. Peat  and  hair  are  sometimes  used  to  adulterate 
the  lower  grades  of  tankage. 

Tankage  usually  is  sold  on  a  guarantee  that  the  protein 
content  will  be  not  less  than  60  per  cent,  which,  of  course,  is 
equivalent  to  1200  pounds  of  protein  per  ton.  Some  tankages 
are  sold  on  a  50  per  cent  guarantee,  likewise  on  a  40  per  cent 
guarantee,  but  the  more  highly  concentrated  goods  are  to  be 
recommended,  inasmuch  as  the  expenses  per  ton  for  prepara- 
tion, bagging,  shipping,  and  hauUng  to  the  farm  are  the  same 
in  the  case  of  a  40  per  cent  protein  tankage  as  in  the  case  of  a 
60  per  cent  protein  tankage.  Consequently  the  more  highly 
concentrated  goods  figure  much  lower  per  unit  of  protein  de- 
Hvered  on  the  farm.  In  addition  to  the  protein,  these  feeding 
tankages  also  contain  about  10  per  cent  of  fat,  from  10  tol5 
per  cent  of  phosphates,  and  about  7  per  cent  of  carbohydrates. 
These  supplementary  constituents  are  very  important,  but 
as  a  feeding  tankage  is  bought  principally  on  account  of  its 
protein  value,  proper  consideration  should  be  given  to  the 
amount  of  protein  and  the  quahty  of  that  protein  when 
purchasing  a  tankage  for  feeding  purposes.  Particular  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  percentage  of  crude  fiber,  as 
this  is  quite  variable.     If  tankage  contains  much  over  6  per 


218  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

cent  of  crude  fiber,  it  is  an  indication  that  it  has  been 
adulterated  with  peat. 

The  principal  u^e  of  tankage  and  meat  meal  is  as  a  supple- 
ment to  corn  for  growing  and  fattening  hogs.  It  not  only 
supphes  the  protein,  but  also  the  mineral  matter  in  which 
corn  is  deficient.  Furthermore  the  protein  of  tankage  is 
especially  rich  in  the  amino  acids  in  which  corn  is  deficient. 
For  supplementing  corn  it  is  usually  cheaper  per  pound  of 
protein  and  also  more  efficient  than  middhngs  or  oil  meal. 
Usually  it  is  not  profitable  to  feed  more  than  10  per  cent 
of  tankage  in  the  ration.  The  amount  fed  should  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  protein  in  the  tankage,  and  upon  the 
protein  requirement  of  the  hogs.  Tankage  and  meat  meal 
are  more  valuable  adjuncts  to  the  corn  ration  when  the  hogs 
are  fed  in  dry  lot  than  when  they  have  access  to  pasture.  It 
should  be  carefully  mixed  with  the  other  feed  to  get  an 
equal  distribution  so  that  all  the  animals  in  the  feed  lot 
will  get  an  equal  amount.  Tankage  will  keep  indefinitely 
if  it  is  stored  in  a  dry  place.  It  may  spoil  if  allowed  to  soak 
in  the  slop  too  long. 

In  Europe,  meat  meal  is  sometimes  fed  in  small  quantitief^ 
to  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  It  has  not  been  used  in  this 
country  to  any  extent  for  animals  other  than  hogs. 

Blood  meal,  or  dried  blood  is  blood  from  slaughtered 
animals,  dried  and  cooked.  It  is  the  highest  in  protein  of 
any  feedingstuff,  containing  about  85  per  cent.  It  is  quite 
low  in  mineral  matter  as  compared  with  tankage.  It  is 
used  principally  for  pigs  as  a  supplement  to  corn.  Such 
animals  should  hav(^  free  access  to  some  mineral  mixture. 
Pigs  at  3  months  old  may  be  given  a  tablespoonful  daily 
and  younger  pigs  in  proportion,  although  tankage  is  usually 


THE  PACKINGHOUSE  BY-PRODUCTS  21% 

more  economical  for  hog  feeding,  as  blood  meal  is  quite 
expensive.  A  teaspoonful  may  be  fed  in  the  milk  of  the 
skim  milk  calf  at  weaning  and  this  amount  gradually  in- 
creased. It  will  have  a  tendency  to  prevent  scours.  It  also 
has  been  fed  to  lambs. 

Blood  flour  is  finely  ground  blood  meal.  There  is  no 
difference  in  chemical  composition  or  in  feeding  value, 
although  blood  flour  usually  sells  for  more  on  the  market. 

Meat  scraps  consist  largely  of  beef  trimmings  which  are 
cooked  in  large  open  vats  in  the  presence  of  grease  for  the 
purpose  of  liberating  all  the  grease  possible.  The  resulting 
cracklings  are  then  subjected  to  heavy  pressure  to  remove  the 
grease  and  water.  The  cakes  are  then  ground  and  bagged. 
Meat  scraps  contain  about  50  per  cent  protein.  They  are 
used  for  poultry  feeding. 

Cracklings  are  the  residues  left  from  the  manufacture  of 
lard  and  tallow.  Although  they  are  not  regularly  listed  on 
the  market  as  a  feedingstuff,  they  often  may  be  obtained 
from  local  slaughter  houses  at  a  low  price.  They  are  as 
high  in  crude  protein  as  tankage  and  contain  considerably 
more  fat.  Digestion  experiments  by  Dietrich  and  Grindley 
at  the  lUinois  Experiment  Station  ^  showed  that  crackhngs 
were  considerably  more  digestible  than  tankage.  For  hogs, 
good  cracklings  should  be  at  least  as  valuable  as  tankage. 
They  are  also  very  good  for  poultry. 

Raw  bone  meal,  as  the  name  implies,  consists  of  ground 
bone.  It  is  made  from  clean,  sound  bones  from  healthy 
animals.  It  is  high  in  protein  and  very  high  in  ash.  It  is 
used  especially  for  hogs  and  poultry  to  furnish  additional 
mineral  matter  to  the  ration.     A  little  may  be  given  to  other 

1  Bui.  170. 


220  PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 

classes  of  farm  animals  if  they  show  a  craving  for  mineral 
matter. 

A  distinction  should  be  made  between  raw  bone  meal, 
which  is  used  for  feeding  purposes,  and  steamed  bone,  which 
is  used  for  fertilizer.  Junk  bones  and  bones  from  condemned 
animals  are  often  used  in  the  manufacture  of  bone  meal  for 
fertiUzer.  Also  they  are  steamed  to  remove  the  protein 
substances  which  are  made  up  into  glue.  Thus  there  is  no 
comparison  between  the  two  for  feeding  purposes. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
MISCELLANEOUS    CONCENTRATES 

Under  the  head  of  misceUaneous  concentrates  may  be 
classed  proprietary  or  patent  preparations,  commercial 
mixed  feeds,  and  such  other  concentrates  as  do  not  logically 
fall  into  any  of  the  other  classes  as  previously  discussed. 

Proprietary  preparations,  or  patent  "  stockfoods,"  as  they 
are  often  called,  vary  in  constitution  from  concentrated 
medicines  to  bulky  feed  with  corn  meal,  screenings,  bran, 
linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal,  ground  corn  cobs,  oat  hulls, 
peat,  etc.,  as  their  chief  constituents.  They  also  usually  con- 
tain salt,  spices,  and  drugs,  which  impart  a  more  or  less 
desirable  odor  and  flavor  to  the  product.  The  most  un- 
warranted claims  are  often  made  by  the  manufacturers  for 
their  products  and,  through  judicious  advertising  in  the 
farm  papers,  enormous  quantities  are  sold  at  prices  far 
above  the  true  value  of  the  product.  There  are  few  farmers 
who  have  not  used  patent  stockfoods  at  some  time  or 
other.  It  is  claimed  by  many  manufacturers  that  the  use 
of  their  "  food  "  will  increase  the  digestibility  of  the  ration, 
decrease  the  cost  of  gains,  prevent  and  cure  disease,  etc. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  practically  all  experiments  are 
unanimous  in  the  conclusion  that  patent  stockfoods  do  not 
increase  the  digestibiUty  but,  on  the  other  hand,  sometimes 
decrease  it ;  they  increase  the  cost  of  gains  ;  and  they  usually 
have  no  effect  upon  the  health  of  the  animal.     The  actual 

221 


222  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

feeding  value  of  such  preparations  is  certainly  no  greater 
than  a  mixture  of  corn  meal,  oat  hulls,  linseed  meal,  or 
whatever  feedingstuffs  make  up  the  stockfood.  Inasmuch 
as  the  price  of  such  preparations  is  usually  from  $100  to 
SI 25  per  ton,  it  is  evident  that  when  it  comes  to  bu\dng 
commercial  feeds,  the  farmer  should  invest  in  bran,  Unseed 
meal,  middhngs,  or  some  other  standard  product  in  which 
he  is  much  more  Uable  to  get  the  worth  of  his  money.  Stock- 
foods  may  act  as  a  stimulant  to  the  appetite,  but  animals 
which  are  properly  managed  do  not  need  stimulants  to  their 
appetites.  For  the  man  who  thinks  he  must  have  a  stimu- 
lant or  tonic  in  the  ration,  the  Iowa  Station  ^  recommends 
the  following  prescription : 

powdered  gentian  1  lb. 

powdered  ginger  1  lb. 

fenugreek  5  lb. 

common  salt  10  lb. 

bran  50  lb. 

linseed  meal  50  lb. 

Hills,  Jones,  and  Hollister  at  the  Vermont  Station  ^  recom- 
mend the  following : 

ground  gentian  1  lb. 

ground  ginger  i  lb. 

powdered  saltpeter  i  lb. 

powdered  iron  sulphate  i  lb. 

Mix  and  give  one  tablespoonful  in  the  feed  every  day  for 
ten  days;  omit  for  three  days,  and  then  feed  daily  for  ten 
days. 

1  Bui.  87.  2  Bui.  104. 


ilb. 

41b. 

ilb. 

41b. 

41b. 

41b. 

lib. 

3  lb. 

141b. 

141b. 

6  1b. 

MISCELLANEOUS   CONCENTRATES  223 

The  following  mixture  is  also  recommended  by  the  Ver- 
mont Station  : 

fenugreek 
ginger 

powdered  gentian 
powdered  sulphur 
potassium  nitrate 
resin 

cayenne  pepper 
ground  flaxseed 
powdered  charcoal 
common  salt 
wheat  bran 

The  farmer,  with  the  aid  of  a  druggist,  may  prepare  any  of 
these  much  more  cheaply  than  he  can  buy  such  preparations 
on  the  market. 

There  are  a  few  patent  medicines  on  the  market  which 
have  some  value,  but  the  farmer  should  use  much  judgment 
in  buying  them,  as  many  are  practically  worthless.  If  an 
animal  is  sick  or  needs  ''  conditioning,"  one  should  have  a 
competent  veterinarian  prescribe  for  it,  rather  than  give  it 
a  ''  cure-all  "  which,  as  Hkely  as  not,  consists  principally  of 
ground  oat  hulls,  corn  cobs,  ginger,  pepper,  and  epsom  salts. 

Commercial  Mixed  Feeds.  —  There  are  mixed,  prepared, 
or  ''  balanced  "  feeds  on  the  market  without  number.  In 
many  cases,  these  ''  balanced  "  feeds  consist  of  mixtures  of 
standard  feedingstuffs,  such  as  ground  corn,  ground  oats, 
gluten  feed,  middlings,  linseed  meal,  etc.  However,  often 
times  these  mixtures  are  composed  of  ground  corn  cobs,  corn 
bran,  oat  hulls,  oat  clippings,'  screenings,  and  other  products 


224 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


low  in  feeding  value.  Thus  such  feeds  should  be  purchased 
only  on  a  guaranteed  analysis  either  from  the  manufacturer 
or  from  the  state  authority  having  in  charge  the  regulation 
and  inspection  of  commercial  feedingstuffs.  Many  states 
now  have  laws  requiring  that  the  minimum  percentages  of 
crude  protein  and  fat,  and  the  maximum  percentage  of  crude 
fiber  be  printed  on  the  container,  or  on  an  attached  label.  If 
the  feed  is  sold  in  bulk  the  dealer  is  usually  required  to  furnish 
a  guaranteed  analysis  from  the  state  authorities.  Many 
states  require  also  that  the  ingredients  making  up  the  feed  be 
printed  on  the  bag  or  label.  Thus  wheat  bran  which  contains 
ground  screenings  must  be  designated  as  ''  bran  with  screen- 
ings." Having  the  chemical  analysis  of  the  feed,  the  pur- 
chaser should  compare  it  with  the  average  chemical  analysis 
of  similar  feeds  as  given  in  Table  28.  If  the  feed  in  question  is 
much  lower  in  crude  protein  and  higher  in  crude  fiber  than  the 
average,  it  indicates  that  the  feed  is  low-grade  or  adulterated. 
The  Texas  Experiment  Station  ^  suggests  that  the  follow- 
ing standards  be  followed  in  bu\dng  commercial  feedingstufTs  : 


Name  of  Feedstuff 


Alfalfa  Meal  .  .  . 
Barley  Chops 
Beet  Molasses  .  . 
Beet  Pulp .... 
Blood,  dried  .  .  . 
Brewers'  Grain,  dried 
Corn  Bran  .  .  . 
Corn  Chops    .     .     . 


Crude 
Protein 

NOT  LESS 
THAN 

PerCent 


13.50 

11.00 

9.00 

0.75 

84.00 

24.00 

9.00 

9.. 50 


Crude 

Fat  not 

less 

THAN 

PerCent 


Nitro- 
gen-Free 
Extract 
NOT  less 

than 
PerCent 


Crude 
Fiber 

NOT  MORE 
THAN 

PerCent 


1.50 
1.50 


2.50 
6.00 
5.00 
3..50 


36.00 

65.00 

59.00 

6.00 

40.00 
63.00 
70.00 


30.00 
6.00 

2.50 

18.00 

10.00 

3.00 


1  Bui.  177. 


MISCELLANEOUS   CONCENTRATES 


225 


Name  of  Feedstuff 


Corn  Cob 2.00 

Corn  Feed  Meal 9.00 

Corn,  Ear  Chops 8.00 

Corn,  Ear  Chops  with  Shuok    .     .  7.75 

Corn  Germ  Meal 10.00 

Cottonseed  Cake 44.00 

Cottonseed  Chops 23.00 

Cottonseed,  cold  pressed       .     .     .  26.00 

Cottonseed,  cold  pressed  (ground)  26.00 

Cottonseed  Hulls 3.00 

Cottonseed  Meal 44.00 

Feterita  Chops 11.00 

Feterita  Head  Chops 10.00 

Hominy  Feed 9.00 

Kafir  Chops 10.50 

Kafir  Head  Chops 9.50 

Linseed  Meal,  new  process   .     .     .  33.00 

Linseed  Meal,  old  process     .     .     .  32.00 

Meat  Scraps 65.00 

Meat  Meal 65.00 

Millet  Seed 11.00 

Milo  Chops 10.00 

Milo  Head  Chops 9.75 

Molasses,  blackstrap 2.40 

Oats,  ground 11.00 

Oat  Hulls I  3.00 

Peanut  Cake,  cold  pressed    .     .     .  30.00 

Peanut  Meal 44.00 

Rice  Bran 1  12.00 

Rice  PoHsh i  12.00 

Rice,  ground  rough ;  7.00 


Crude 
Protein 

NOT  LESS 
THAN 

PerCent 


Rice  Hulls 
Rye  Chops  .... 
Sorgo  Chops  .... 
Sunflower  Seed  . 
Wheat  Bran  .... 
Wheat  Chops  .  .  . 
Wheat  Mixed  Feed  . 
Wheat  Shorts,  standard 


3.00 
10.00 

9.50 
16.00 
15.00 
15.00 
16.00 
17.00 


Crude 
Fat  NOT 


THAN 

PerCent 


.50 
4.00 
3.00 
2.75 
3.50 
7.50 
20.00 
7.00 
7.00 
.25 
7.50 
2.50 
2.50 
6.00 
2.75 
2.50 
3.00 
7.50 
13.00 
13.00 
4.00 
2.50 
2.40 

4.00 
1.00 

10.00 
.50 

11.00 
7.00 
1.75 
.50 
1.50 
3.00 

21.00 
3.50 
2.00 
3.60 
3.80 


Nitro- 
gen-Free 
Extract 

NOT  LESS 

than 
PerCent 


54.00 
67.00 
64.00 
62.00 
66.00 
24.00 
25.00 
28.00 
28.00 
28.00 
24.00 
69.00 
64.00 
60.00 
69.50 
65.00 
38.00 
35.00 
2.50 
2.50 
57.00 
71.00 
65.00 
65.00 
58.00 
51.00 
23.00 
23.00 
42.00 
60.00 
63.00 
37.00 
72.00 
69.00 
21.00 
54.00 
65.00 
55.00 
60.00 


226  PRINCIPLES    OP   FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

All  buyers  of  commercial  feedingstuffs  should  familiarize 
themselves  with  their  state  laws  relative  to  the  sale  of 
commercial  feedingstuffs  and  make  good  use  of  the  bulletins, 
etc.,  published  by  the  state  authorities  having  the  regulation 
in  charge. 

Even  if  the  "  balanced  "  mixed  feeds  offered  by  the  dealer 
are  composed  of  pure,  sound  feeds  it  is  usually  not  profitable 
to  buy  them.  Carbohydrates  can  be  raised  more  cheaply  on 
the  corn-belt  farms  than  any  other  place  in  the  United  States. 
What  the  corn-belt  feeder  lacks  is  protein,  and  when  he  buys 
any  considerable  amount  of  carbohydrates  as  he  does  when 
buying  a  balanced  mixed  feed,  he  buys  a  nutrient  of  which  he 
already  has  an  abundant  supply  in  his  farm  feeds.  Also  he 
pays  the  freight  both  ways,  the  elevator  man's  profit,  the 
commission  man's  profit,  the  manufacturer's  profit,  and  the 
dealer's  profit. 

So,  under  ordinary  conditions,  corn-belt  feeders  should 
]juy  only  nitrogenous  feeds,  should  insist  on  having  a  stand- 
ard product,  and  should  ask  for  the  guaranteed  analysis 
of  the  feed. 

Oftentimes  there  are  different  grades  of  the  same  feeds 
on  the  market.  Thus  one  may  purchase  cottonseed  meal 
containing  20  to  45  per  cent  of  protein,  or  tankage  containing 
30  to  60  per  cent  of  protein.  Almost  invariably  it  is  more 
economical  to  purchase  the  best  grades  rather  than  the  poorer 
ones,  as  it  will  not  be  profitable  to  pay  freight  on  a  lot  of 
cottonseed  hulls  or  peat. 

In  most  cases  it  will  pay  the  farmer  to  buy  standard 
feedingstuffs  and  mix  his  own  rations,  as  he  usually  can  mix 
them  as  cheaply  as  the  manufacturer,  besides  having  the 
assurance  of  knowing  exactly  for  what  he  is  paying. 


MISCELLANEOUS   CONCENTRATES  227 

Molasses.  —  There  are  three  kinds  of  low-grade  molaHses 
which  are  used  for  stockfeeding,  beet  molasses,  cane  molasses, 
and  corn  molasses. 

Beet  molasses  is  a  by-product  from  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  sugar  beets.  It  contains  about  60  per  cent  of 
carbohydrates,  largely  in  the  form  of  sugar.  Used  in  small 
amounts  it  is  about  three-fourths  as  valuable  for  feeding 
as  corn.  In  large  amounts  it  is  very  laxative  or  even  purga- 
tive. Not  over  a  few  pounds  should  be  fed  daily.  Beet 
molasses  is  not  especially  palatable,  but  has  a  bitter,  alkaline 
taste.  It  is  usually  diluted  with  water  and  sprinkled  over 
other  feeds.  Beet  molasses  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  '^  molasses  feeds." 

Cane  molasses  or  blackstrap  is  a  by-product  from  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  from  sugar  cane.  It  is  a  thick,  black 
molasses,  which  has  a  pleasant  odor  and  a  sweet  taste.  It  is 
very  palatable,  much  reUshed,  and  is  higher  in  feeding  value 
than  beet  molasses.  Like  corn,  it  is  high  in  carbohydrates 
and  low  in  protein.  It  may  be  used  for  all  classes  of  farm 
animals.  In  the  North,  it  is  usually  used  as  an  appetizer, 
or  it  is  diluted  with  water  and  sprinkled  over  unpalatable 
and  inferior  feeds  in  order  to  increase  their  consumption. 
Not  over  3  pounds  per  day  should  be  fed  to  horses,  fattening 
cattle,  and  milch  cows.  It  may  be  fed  to  hogs  in  their  slop. 
Unhke  beet  molasses,  it  is  costive  in  action.  It  is  used 
extensively  in  molasses  feeds. 

Corn  molasses  is  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  corn 
sugar  just  in  the  same  way  that  beet  and  cane  molasses  are 
obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  beet  and  cane  sugar.  It  con- 
tains only  about  20  per  cent  of  water.  In  feeding  it  should 
be  at  least  as  valuable  as  cane  molasses. 


228  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Molasses  Feeds.  —  Different  feedingstuffs  are  often 
sweetened  with  molasses,  dried,  and  sold  under  various 
trade  names.  Although  some  of  these  mixtures  are  good, 
often  the  molasses  is  used  with  material  such  as  ground  alfalfa 
or  clover  chaff,  oat  dust,  oat  cHppings,  screenings,  peanut 
hulls,  and  other  substances  which  have  little  or  no  feeding 
value.  The  use  of  molasses  provides  one  of  the  best  means 
possible  for  disguising  substances  which  are  low  in  nutritive 
value.  It  has  been  found  that  mixing  beet  molasses  with 
peat  or  sphagnum  moss  greatly  improves  the  palatabiUty 
and  neutraUzes  the  alkalinity  of  the  molasses.  However, 
the  peat  does  not  add  anything  to  the  nutritive  value,  al- 
though it  is  quite  high  in  nitrogen,  because  it  is  practically 
indigestible. 

Usually  the  farmer  cannot  afford  to  buy  such  feeds  at  the 
high  prices  ordinarily  asked  for  them.  In  general,  it  will 
pay  the  farmer  to  prepare  his  molasses  mixtures  at  home, 
thereby  utilizing  the  waste  roughages  of  the  farm,  and  not 
paying  a  fancy  price  for  another  man's  low-grade  roughage. 

Beet  pulp  is  a  by  product  of  the  beet  sugar  factories.  It  is 
the  residue  after  the  extraction  of  a  large  part  of  the  sugar 
of  the  beet.  In  the  wet  form,  it  consists  of  about  90  per  cent 
water.  In  regions  where  it  can  be  obtained  cheaply,  it  may 
be  fed  with  profit  in  either  the  wet  or  dry  form  to  dairy  cows, 
fattening  steers,  or  fattening  sheep.  Souring  does  not 
decrease  the  value  of  the  wet  pulp.  In  fact,  it  is  better 
relished  this  way.  The  dried  beet  pulp  is  only  a  little 
below  corn  meal  in  nutritive  value.  It  is  especially  valuable 
for  dairy  cows  and  fattening  cattle  when  properly  supple- 
mented by  nitrogenous  concentrates.  However,  it  should 
not  be  used  unless  cheaper  than  corn.     When  fed  to  dairy 


MISCELLANEOUS   CONCENTRATES  229 

COWS  it  is  best  to  soak  it  in  two  or  tliree  times  its  weiglit  of 
water,  thereby  providing  a  valuable  succulent  feed.    It  is  often 
sweetened  with  molasses  and  sold  under  various  trade  names. 
Salvage  grain  is  grain  which  has  been  damaged  in  ware- 
house fires  by  fire,  smoke,  or  water.     It  may  consist  of  practi- 
cally any  grain,  or  it  may  be  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  various 
grains.     It  sometimes  contains  considerable  weed  seed.     In 
general,  salvage  grain  has  a  fairly  high  feeding  value  for  all 
classes  of  farm  animals,  though  it  depends  largely  upon  the 
grains  entering  into  its  composition,  and  upon  the  extent  of 
the  damage  by  fire  and  water.     Occasionally  such  feeds  are 
made  available  to  the  farmer  by  local  elevator  fires  at  a  very 
low  price  and,  in  such  cases,  he  should  make  use  of  them.     It 
usually  will  not  pay  him  to  buy  salvage  on  the  market,  as 
the  price  is  often  as  much  as  the  price  of  the  undamaged  grain. 
Skim  milk  is  relatively  high  in  protein  and  mineral  matter. 
It  is  preeminently  a  feed  for  hogs.     For  young  pigs  it  is 
probably  the  best  supplementary  feed.     It  is  also  good  as  a 
supplement  to  corn  for  fattening  hogs.     However,  too  much 
skim  milk  should  not  be  fed.     WeanHng  pigs   should   Ijc 
started  out  on  not  more  than  3  pounds  of  skim  milk  per  pound 
of  dry  concentrates  fed.     Later  the  milk  should  be  reduced 
to  2  pounds  per  pound  of  dry  concentrates.     When  properly 
combined  with  concentrates,  5  to  6  pounds  of   skim  milk 
are  equal  in  feeding  value  to  1  pound  of  corn.     Sweet  milk 
is  no  better  than  sour  milk,  except  that  the  former  is  prefer- 
able in  the  case  of  young  pigs.      Skim  milk  may  be  used  also 
for  calves  if  carefully  fed  and  properly  supplemented. 

Buttermilk  has  about  the  same  composition  and  the  same 
feeding  value  for  pigs  as  skim  milk.  If  allowed  to  ferment 
in  dirty  tanks  it  may  be  dangerous. 


230  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Whey  has  iibout  half  the  feeding  value  for  hogs  as  skim 
milk. 

Cocoa  shells  are  the  hard,  outside  coating  or  bran  of  the 
cocoa  bean.  They  are  dark  brown  in  appearance  and  brittle 
in  texture.  They  contain  about  15  per  cent  of  protein  and 
about  the  same  amount  of  crude  fiber.  In  Europe  they  are 
used  in  the  rations  of  horses  and  cattle  and  as  an  adulterant 
for  oil  cakes.  They  are  just  beginning  to  be  used  as  a  feed  in 
this  country.  Lindsey  ^  rates  them  as  having  not  more  than 
one-half  the  feeding  value  of  corn  meal.  He  states  that 
they  are  best  suited  for  use  in  the  ration  of  dairy  cows. 
They  should  be  ground  and  1  to  3  pounds  daily  should 
be  fed. 

Tin  Plate  By-product.  —  In  the  manufacture  of  tin  plate 
after  the  plate  has  been  put  through  the  tin  bath  it  goes  into 
a  bath  of  palm  oil,  then  it  is  taken  out  and  the  excess  oil 
is  removed  by  means  of  wheat  middUngs,  which  are  used  over 
and  over  again  to  absorb  the  oil  and  also  to  polish  the  plate. 
After  these  middhngs  have  served  their  purpose,  the  slivers 
of  iron  and  tin  are  removed  and  the  middhngs  with  the  ab- 
sorbed palm  oil  are  sold  as  tin  plate  by-product.  Sometimes 
peanut  meal  is  used  in  place  of  wheat  middhngs.  The  feeding 
value  should  be  at  least  as  great  as  that  of  ordinary  wheat 
middhngs. 

Vegetable  Meal.  —  Recently  a  process  has  been  perfected 
by  means  of  which  garbage  is  dried,  the  oil  removed,  and  the 
residue  ground  and  used  for  stockfeeding.  In  the  process 
of  drying  and  removing  the  oil,  the  material  is  steriHzed 
by  heat.  Inasmuch  as  no  experiments  have  yet  been  re- 
ported upon  this  material  we  are  unable  to  feay  anything 
1  Mass.  Agr.  Exp,  Sta.  Bui.  158. 


MISCELLANEOUS   CONCENTRATES  231 

as  to  its  nutritive  value.     It  ranges  from  19  to  30  per  cent 
in  protein,  depending  largely  upon  its  ingredients. 

Yeast  or  vinegar  dried  grains  are  the  dried  residue  from 
the  mixture  of  cereals,  malt  and  malt  sprouts  (sometimes 
cottonseed  meal),  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  yeast  or 
vinegar.  They  consist  of  corn  or  corn  and  rye,  from  which 
most  of  the  starch  has  been  extracted,  together  with  malt 
added  during  the  manufacturing  process  to  change  the  starch 
to  sugars,  and  malt  sprouts  (sometimes  cottonseed  meal), 
added  during  the  manufacturing  process  to  aid  in  filtering 
the  residue  from  the  wort  and  serve  as  a  source  of  food  supply 
for  the  yeast.  They  are  probably  similar  to  dried  distillers' 
grains  in  feeding  value. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE    HAYS 

Hay  consists  of  the  entire  dried  plant  of  the  fine-stemmed 
grasses  or  of  the  legumes.  Ordinarily  the  plant  is  cut  at 
such  times  as  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  digestible  nu- 
trients and  the  least  amount  of  crude  fiber,  and  allowed  to 
dry  or  cure  in  the  sun.  The  curing  process  should  not  take 
place  too  rapidly  or  it  will  not  have  the  pleasant  aroma  which 
well-cured  hay  should  have.  It  will  also  be  more  brittle 
and  more  of  the  valuable  leaves  will  be  lost  in  putting  it  up. 

Brown  hay  is  made  by  stacking  the  hay  when  only  partial- 
ly cured.  On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  water  which 
it  contains,  it  undergoes  fermentation  with  the  production 
of  considerable  heat,  which  discolors  or  may  even  char  the 
hay.  The  feeding  value  of  brown  hay  is  less  than  that  of 
ordinary  hay.  However,  it  usually  is  very  palatable  and 
much  relished  by  stock.  It  is  commonly  prepared  in  regions 
where  cUmatic  conditions  make  it  difficult  to  thoroughly 
cure  the  hay. 

Hay  may  be  divided  into  two  subclasses,  the  legume  hays 
and  the  grass  hays. 

THE    LEGUME    HAYS 

The  most  important  legume  hays  are  red  clover  and  alfalfa. 
Of  less  importance  are  mammoth  clover,  alsike  clover,  sweet 

232 


THE   HA  YS 


233 


234 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


clover,  crimson  clover,  Japan  clover,  velvet  bean,  peanut, 
beggar  weed,  Canadian  field  pea,  cowpea,  soybean,  and  the 
vetches.  The  legume  hays  are  distinguished  from  the  grass 
hays  by  their  high  content  of  protein  and  ash.  They  also 
usually  contain  more  ether  extract.     On  account  of  their 

relatively  high  content 
of  protein  and  mineral 
matter,  they  are  par- 
ticularly valuable  in 
stockf  ceding. 

Red  clover  hay  is  or- 
dinarily spoken  of  in 
the  corn-belt  as  ^'  clover 
hay."  It  is  the  stand- 
ard legume  hay  crop  of 
the  United  States  and 
Canada.  It  is  grown 
extensively  in  the  corn- 
belt  as  it  fits  in  well 
with  the  ordinary  crop 
rotations. 

The  average  chemi- 
cal composition  of  red 
clover  hay  is  as  fol- 
lows: water,  15.0  per  cent;  ash,  7.7  per  cent;  crude  pro- 
tein, 13.3  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  24.3  per  cent ;  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  37.2  per  cent ;  and  fat,  2.5  per  cent.  Its  net 
energy  value  is  34.7  therms  per  100  pounds.  As  thecom- 
l)osition  indicates,  it  is  relatively  high  in  muscle-building 
constitutents.  The  feeding  value  of  clover  hay  depends  to 
a  large  extent  upon  the  time  of  cutting  and  the  method  of 


Fig.  50.  —  Red  clover.     (Livingston 
Crop  Production.) 


Field 


THE  HAYS 


235 


curing.  If  the  hay  is  cut  too  early  it  will  not  contain  enough 
nutrients,  while  if  it  is  cut  too  late  it  will  contain  more  crude 
fiber  and  })e  less  digestible.  Clover  should  be  cut  when 
approximately  one-third  of  the  heads  have  turned  brown. 
If  the  hay  is  leached  by  rain  a  large  part  of  the  more  digestible 
portions  are  washed  out.  If  it  is  put  up  too  green,  it  will 
brown,  mold,  or  fire ;  while  if  it  is  put  up  too  dry,  the  leaves, 


Fig.  51.  — Production  of  clover  in  the  United  States.     One  dot  repre.sent.s 
10,000  tons.     (Hitchcock,  A  Text-Book  of  Grasses.) 

which  contain  most  of  the  nutriment,  will  be  shattered  off 
and  lost. 

'For  Growing  Stock.  —  Due  to  its  high  content  of  crude 
protein  and  mineral  matter,  clover  hay  is  one  of  the  best 
roughages  for  growing  stock. 

For  calves  and  growing  cattle,  clover  hay  is  second  only 
to  alfalfa  as  a  roughage.  0^ving  to  its  bulkiness,  concen- 
trates should  be  fed  along  with  it  for  quick  growth,  but  for 
wintering  stock  cattle  Uttle  or  no  other  feed  is  necessary. 


236         PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Clover  hay,  if  bright,  clean,  and  well-cured,  may  be  used  in 
limited  amounts  for  colts  and  young  horses.  Mixed  hay 
(clover  and  timothy)  is  also  very  good.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  feed  dirty,  dusty  clover  hay,  as  the  dust  may 
cause  serious  trouble  by  irritating  the  lungs  of  the  horse. 
Clover  hay  is  too  bulky  to  use  very  extensively  for  gro^ving 
pigs.  It  is  excellent  for  lambs.  In  fact,  it  is  almost  in- 
dispensable unless  alfalfa  hay  is  available. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  Clover  hay  may  furnish  a  large 
part  of  the  protein  in  the  ration  of  the  fattening  animal. 
Especially'  is  this  true  in  the  corn-belt,  where  corn  is  the 
principal  concentrate  used  by  the  feeder. 

For  fattening  cattle,  clover  hay,  corn,  and  2  to  4  pounds 
of  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal  make  an  excellent  combi- 
nation. Unless  silage  is  available,  it  is  quite  difficult  to 
formulate  a  satisfactory  ration  for  fattening  cattle  ^\dthout 
including  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  Clover  hay  is  too  bulky  for 
use  with  fattening  hogs.  When  clover  hay  furnishes  the 
entire  roughage  for  fattening  lambs  or  sheep,  corn  is  the  only 
concentrate  necessary  to  produce  good  gains.  The  addition 
of  a  little  linseed  or  cottonseed  meal  may  increase  the  gains 
somewhat,  but  usually  not  enough  to  pay  for  the  increased 
cost  of  the  ration. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  O^vsang  to  its  high  content  of  pro- 
tein and  mineral  matter,  clover  hay  makes  a  good  roughage 
for  all  classes  of  breeding  animals. 

Breeding  cows  may  be  maintained  through  the  winter 
on  Uttle  or  no  concentrates  if  they  have  plenty  of  clover  hay. 
The  same  precautions  should  be  taken  in  feeding  it  to  brood 
mares  as  have  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  its  use 
for  colts.     If  these  precautions  are  taken,  it  is  quite  satis- 


THE  HAYS 


237 


factory.  In  winter  it  may  be  fed  in  limited  amounts  to 
brood  sows  when  they  are  not  suckling  a  litter.  For  breed- 
ing ewes,  good  clover  hay  with  little  or  no  grain  is  sufficient 
to  maintain  them  until  within  a  few  weeks  of  the  lambing 
season. 

For  Milk  Cows.  —  Clover  hay  furnishes  a  large  amount 
of  the  crude  protein  and  ash  so  essential  to  milk  production. 
When  it  forms  the  sole  rough- 
age of  dairy  cows,  as  much  as 
half  of  the  concentrates  may 
consist  of  corn.  If  a  non-ni- 
trogenous roughage  is  used, 
less  corn  and  more  nitroge- 
nous concentrates  must  be  fed. 
Either  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is 
almost  essential  for  economi- 
cal milk  production. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  Clover 
hay  is  coming  to  be  more  gen- 
erally fed  to  horses.  When 
of  good  quahty  it  may  be  used 
together  with  timothy  hay  for 

work  horses.  It  should  be  of  good  quality,  otherwise  it  ^vill 
be  too  stemy  and  the  dust  will  cause  harm. 

Alfalfa  hay  is  probably  the  most  valuable  roughage  grown. 
Although  it  is  the  principal  hay  of  many  of  the  semi-arid 
states  of  the  West,  alfalfa  is  not  yet  generally  grown  in  the 
corn-belt.  It  is,  however,  becoming  more  extensively  grown 
and  it  has  its  place  on  every  corn-belt  stock-farm.  It  has 
the  advantage  over  clover  of  being  more  resistant  to  drought, 
of  yielding  better,  and  of  having  a  higher  feeding  value. 


Fig.  52.  —  An  alfalfa  plant.     (Liv- 
ingston, Field  Crop  Production.) 


238 


PRIXCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


THE  HAYS 


239 


Clover  on  the  other  hand  is  much  easier  to  start  and  much 
easier  to  cure. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  alfalfa  hay  is  as 
follows:  water,  8.1  per  cent;  ash,  9.1  per  cent;  crude  pro- 
tein, 14.7  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  28.4  per  cent ;  nitrogen-free 
extract,  35.8  per  cent ;  and  fat,  1.9  per  cent.  Its  net  energy 
value  is  34.4  therms  per  100  pounds.  The  feeding  value  of 
alfalfa  hay  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  quahty. 
Good,  well-cured  alfalfa 
hay  has  a  feeding  value 
much  greater  than  clover 
hay.  Poorly  cured  al- 
falfa hay  may  have  a 
feeding  value  consider- 
ably less.  Therefore, 
considerable  care  must 
be  exercised  in  the  curing 
of  alfalfa  hay.  If  it  is 
allowed  to  become  dry  and  brittle  before  it  is  taken  in,  a 
large  part  of  the  leaves,  which  contain  much  of  the  nutritive 
value,  will  shatter  off.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  taken  in 
too  green,  it  will  heat  and  mold,  not  only  greatly  decreasing 
its  value  as  a  feed,  but  also  making  the  stack  or  mow  liable 
to  fire  from  spontaneous  combustion.  The  first  and  last 
cuttings  are  especially  difficult  to  cure. 

For  Growing  Stock.  —  Owing  to  its  high  content  of  protein 
and  mineral  matter,  its  palatabihty,  and  its  general  physical 
condition,  well-cured  alfalfa  hay  is  the  prime  dry  roughage 
for  practically  all  growing  animals. 

Young  cattle  may  be  mntered  on  alfalfa  hay  with  no 
concentrates  and  make  a  fair  growth.     Colts  and  young 


Fig.  54.  —  Arrangement  of  leaflets  of 
alfalfa  and  clover.  (Livingston,  Field 
Crop  Production.) 


240         PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDiyO   FARM  ANIMALS 

horses  may  utilize  considerable  alfalfa  by  feeding  timothy 
hay  with  it.  Alfalfa  leaves,  or  the  entire  plant  fed  whole, 
chopped,  or  ground  may  be  utiUzed  to  advantage  as  a  supple- 
ment to  corn  for  growing  pigs.  It  is  the  best  roughage  avail- 
able for  lambs. 

For  Fattening  Stock.  —  Alfalfa  hay  is  very  good  for  all 
fattening  stock  except  hogs.  It  furnishes  a  large  part  of 
the  protein  which  otherwise  would  have  to  be  furnished  by 
expensive  concentrates. 

Only  a  small  amount  of  nitrogenous  concentrates  is  needed 
in  a  ration  of  corn  and  alfalfa  hay  for  fattening  cattle.  Its 
use  also  materially  decreases  the  amount  of  concentrates 
needed.  Only  small  amounts  of  alfalfa  hay  should  be  used 
in  the  rations  of  fattening  hogs,  owing  to  their  inabiUty  to 
handle  large  quantities  of  bulky  feeds.  It  will  usually  pay 
to  buy  some  less  bulky  nitrogenous  concentrate  as  a  supple- 
ment to  corn  for  hogs.  It  is  difficult  to  improve  a  ration  of 
corn  and  alfalfa  hay  for  fattening  lambs  or  sheep.  Alfalfa 
hay  may  be  used  quite  extensively  in  the  rations  of  horses 
which  are  being  fattened  for  the  market. 

For  Breeding  Stock.  —  Alfalfa  hay  is  very  good  for  breeding 
animals,  not  only  on  account  of  its  chemical  composition, 
but  also  on  account  of  its  laxative  effect. 

Breeding  cows  which  have  free  access  to  alfalfa  hay  need 
little  or  no  grain  during  the  winter.  If  not  dusty,  it  is  very 
suitable  for  brood  mares.  However,  not  only  because  of 
its  cost  but  also  because  of  its  high  protein  content  and  laxa- 
tive nature  it  is  usually  fed  with  some  other  roughage.  It 
may  be  fed  from  racks  to  brood  sows  with  very  good  results. 
Breeding  ewes  may  be  successfully  wintered  up  until  a  few 
weeks  of  lambing  time  on  alfalfa  hay  alone. 


THE  HAYS 


241 


For  Milk  Cows.  —  Alfalfa  hay  may  furnish  60  per  cent  of 
the  protein  of  the  ration  of  dairy  cows  with  profit.  In  this 
case,  fifty  per  cent  or  even  more  of  the  concentrates  of  the 
ration  may  consist  of  corn.  It  is  not  necessary,  and  usually 
not  profitable,  to  use  bran  in  the  ration  when  it  contains 
alfalfa  as  the  roughage. 

For  Work  Horses.  —  Alfalfa  hay,  if  not  dusty,  is  very 
suitable  for  work  horses.  When  it  is  fed,  there  is  no  need 
of  feeding  nitrogenous  concentrates  in  addition  to  corn.  It 
is  usually  too  laxative  to  furnish  a  very  large  part  of  the 
roughage  of  driving  horses.  It  perhaps  may  give  better 
results  if  fed  with  tim- 
othy hay,  oats  straw, 
or  com  stover.  Horses 
will  maintain  flesh  bet- 
ter on  alfalfa  than  on 
timothy  hay.  Late-cut 
alfalfa  hay  is  preferable 
for  horses. 

Mammoth  clover  hay 
has  about  the  same 
chemical  composition  as 
red  clover  hay.  It  is 
coarser  and,  conse- 
quently, less  valuable  as 
a  feed.  It  will  grow 
under  more  adverse  con- 
ditions than  red  clover. 
It  is  several  weeks  later  than  red  clover  and  yields  but  one 
cutting  in  a  season.  It  is  often  grown  with  timothy  as  it 
is  ready  for  cutting  at  about  the  same  time  as  timothy.     As 


Fig.  55.  —  Alsike  clover.    (Livingston,  Field 
Crop  Production.) 


242 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


it  gjrows  very  heavy  and  rank,  it  is  often  possible  to  pasture 
it  early  in  the  spring  before  it  is  cut  for  hay.  It  is  practi- 
cally as  good  for  cattle  as  red  clover 
hay,  but  not  as  valuable  for  horses, 
hogs,  and  sheep  on  account  of  the 
stems. 

Alsike  Clover  Hay  is  similar  in 
chemical  composition  to  red  clover 
hay.  Well-made  alsike  hay  has  a 
high  feeding  value,  but  the  yield  is . 
usually  too  small  to  permit  its  being 
grown  profitably  if  red  clover  can 
be  grown.  However,  it  may  be 
grown  successfully  on  land  too  acid 
or  too  wet  for  red  clover.  It  should 
be  grown  with  timothy  or  some  other 
grass,  as  it  usually  has  weak  stems 
and  will  fall  to  the  ground  unless 
supported.  Such  a  mixture  makes 
a  very  good  hay  for  horses,  as  it 
usually  is  clean  and  free  from  dust. 
Sweet  Clover  Hay.  —  Quite  gener- 
ally regarded  as  a  pest  until  recently, 
sweet  clover  is  coming  slowly  into 
use  as  a  feed  for  farm  animals.  It 
will  grow  on  soil  too  poor  in  humus 
to  grow  red  clover  or  alfalfa  success- 
fully. Owing  to  the  tough  seed  coats  much  of  the  seed  will 
not  germinate  the  first  year.  The  ordinary  white  sweet  clover 
should  be  sown.  Usually  one  crop  of  hay  may  be  secured 
the  first  year  and  two  crops  the  second  year.     Inasmuch  as 


Fig.  5G.  —  Sweet  clover. 
(Piper,  Forage  Plants.) 


THE   HAYS 


243 


the  first  season's  growth  does  not  usually  get  coarse  and 
woody,  it  may  be  cut  the  first  season  when  the  plant  shows  its 
maximum  growth  in  the  fall.  The  second  season  the  hay 
should  be  cut  just  before  the  first  bloom  appears,  as  the  plant 
then  rapidly  becomes  coarse,  woody,  and  less  palatable.  It 
is  rather  difficult  to  cure,  and 
care  should  be  taken  not  to 
shatter  ofT  the  leaves. 

In  chemical  composition, 
sweet  clover  hay  is  about  the 
same  as  alfalfa.  In  feeding 
value,  good  sweet  clover  hay 
is  a  httle  less  valuable  than 
alfalfa  hay.  Its  chief  draw- 
back is  its  bitter  taste,  which 
often  causes  animals  to  refuse 
it  at  first.  The  bitter  taste 
is  not  present  in  the  young 
shoots  but  only  in  the  older, 
tougher  stalks.  However,  stock  can  be  readily  induced  to 
eat  it,  and  once  they  acquire  a  taste  for  it  no  difficulty  is 
experienced.     It  is  used  especially  for  cattle  and  sheep. 

Crimson  clover  is  an  annual  grown  in  the  South  Atlantic 
States.  It  does  not  make  a  satisfactory  hay  on  account 
of  the  small,  rigid,  barb  hairs  which  occur  on  the  ripened 
head  of  the  plant.  These  hairs  may  form  balls  in  the  diges- 
tive tract  of  the  horse  and  cause  serious  trouble  or  even 
death.  If  it  is  used  for  hay,  it  should  be  cut  at  the  time  of 
blooming. 

Japan  clover,  or  lespedeza  is  an  annual  grown  extensively 
in  the  South.     It  furnishes  from  one  to  four  tons  of  hay  per 


Fig.  57.  —  A  crimson   clover   plant. 
(Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production.) 


244 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


acre.     It  is  similar  to  red  clover  hay  in  chemical  composition 
and  equal  to  the  best  red  clover  hay  in  feeding  value. 

The  velvet  bean  is  an  annual  grown  in  the  extreme  South. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  cure  into  hay  on  account  of  its   rank 

growth.  The  vines  are 
sometimes  75  feet  long. 
It  is  a  heavy  yielder  and 
ranks  with  other  legumes 
in  feeding  value. 

The  peanut  is  grown  in 
the  South.  Hay  made 
from  the  peanut  vines  is 
about  equal  to  red  clover 
in  feeding  value. 

The  beggar  weed  is  an 
erect  annual  from  3  to  10 
feet  high.  It  is  used  in 
the  South  for  hay.  It 
has  a  very  rank  growth, 
often  yielding  4  to  6 
tons  per  acre.  In  feeding 
value  the  hay  is  probably 
a  little  below  red  clover. 

Canada  field  peas, 
grown  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  states  of  this  country,  are  sometimes  used  for  hay. 
Well-cured  pea  vine  hay  is  about  equal  to  red  clover  in  feeding 
value.  Peas  are  often  seeded  with  oats.  The  oats  support 
the  peas,  so  that  mowing  is  easier. 

Cowpea  hay  is   used   quite   generally  in   the   South,   al- 
though it  is  not  generally  used  in  the  North,  where  the 


Fig.  58.  —  Field  pea.     (Piper,  Forage 
Plants.) 


THE  HATS 


245 


other  legumes  may  be  more  successfully  raised.  In  the 
corn-belt,  it  can  be  grown  to  advantage  sometimes  as  a 
catch  crop,  especially  after  the  failure  of  clover.  Cowpea 
hay  is  rather  difficult 
to  cure.  In  composition 
and  feeding  value,  it 
closely  resembles  alfalfa. 
It  is  especially  valuable 
for  dairy  cows. 

Soybean  hay,  although 
little  used,  ranks  in  feed- 
ing value  with  the  other 
legume  hays.  Soybeans 
may  be  grown  as  a  catch 
crop. 

Common  vetch,  often 
grown  with  barley,  oats, 
wheat,  or  rye,  is  quite 
generally  used  on  the 
Pacific  coast  and  in  the 
South  as  a  hay..  It  is 
seeded  in  the  fall  usually. 
Hairy  vetch  can  be  grown 
in  the  corn-belt.  The 
United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  ^ 
states  that  it  can  be  used  to  seed  in  the  corn  at  the  last 
cultivation  to  furnish  a  subsequent  crop  for  green  manuring 
or  for  hay.  Hairy  vetch  is  one  of  the  best  legumes  to  use 
where  red  clover  is  not  a  success.     This  is  especially  true 

1  Farmers'  Bui.  515. 


Fig.  59. 


Cowpea.     (Fijicr,  Forage 
Plants.) 


246 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


in  sandy  soils.     Vetch  hay  is  at  least  as  valuable  as  red 
clover  hay. 


THE    GRASS    HAYS 

The    principal    grass    hay   of    the    corn-belt    is  timothy. 
Other  grasses  which  are  sometimes  grown  for  hay  are  the 

millets,  the  sorghums, 
Sudan  grass,  red  top, 
orchard  grass,  Bermuda 
grass,  Johnson  grass, 
prairie  grass,  brome 
grass,  tall  oat  grass, 
Itahan  rye  grass,  slen- 
der wheat  grass,  west- 
ern wheat  grass,  rye, 
oats,  and  barley.  Un- 
Hke  the  legume  hays, 
most  of  the  grass  hays 
are  deficient  in  protein 
and  consequently  they 
are  not  as  valuable  for 
most  feeding  purposes. 
They  have  the  advan- 
tage of  being  more  easily  grown  and  more  easily  cured  than 
the  legume  hays. 

Timothy  Hay.  —  Timothy  is  familiar  to  all  as  it  is  very 
widely  and  easily  grown.  The  hay  is  easily  cured  and  un- 
usually free  from  dust.  The  objections  to  timothy  are  its 
low-feeding  value  and  the  fact  that  it  is  very  hard  on  the 
soil.  These  objections  may  be  partly  obviated  by  sowing 
alsike  or  red  clover  in  it. 


Fig.  60. — A  soybean  plant.     (Livingston, 
Field  Crop  Production.) 


THE  HAYS 


247 


The  average  chemical  composition  of  timothy  hay  is  as 
follows :  water,  13.2  per  cent ;  ash,  4.4  per  cent  ;  crude 
protein,  5.9  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  29.0  per  cent ;  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  45.0  per  cent ;  and  fat,  2.5  per  cent.  Its  net 
energy  value  is  33.6 
therms  per  100  pounds. 

On  account  of  its  low 
content  of  protein,  it 
cannot  be  regarded  as 
a  satisfactory  roughage 
for  growing  or  breed- 
ing animals  unless  they 
receive  considerable 
amounts  of  nitrogenous 
concentrates  in  ad- 
dition. Such  animals 
should  have  consider- 
able wheat  bran.  If 
fed  as  the  exclusive 
roughage  to  fattening 
cattle  and  sheep,  the 
concentrates  should  be 
rich  in  nitrogenous 
feeds,  as  linseed  meal, 
gluten  feed,  cottonseed  meal,  or  wheat  bran.  Even  then  the 
results  in  most  cases  will  not  be  as  satisfactory  as  when  corn 
alone  is  fed  with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  Usually  the  market 
value  of  timothy  hay  and  the  cost  of  the  nitrogenous  con- 
centrates make  it  too  expensive  for  such  feeding.  Timothy 
hay  is  often  given  too  high  a  value  as  a  feed  for  the  milk  cow. 
When  it  forms  a  large  part  of  her  roughage,  a  very  large 


Fig.  GL— Hairy  vetf'h. 
Plants.) 


(Piper,  Forage 


248 


PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 


proportion  of  the  concentrates  should  consist  of  nitrogenous 
feed,  such  as  bran,  gluten  feed,  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal, 
etc.     Only  a  small  amount  of  com  should  be  used  in  such  a 

ration.  Even  then  the  best 
results  will  not  be  obtained. 
For  horses,  however,  timo- 
thy hay  is  the  standard 
roughage.  It  is  practically 
the  only  roughage  used  for 
horses  in  the  city.  It  is 
also  extensively  used  on  the 
farm.  The  reasons  for  its 
preeminence  as  a  roughage 
for  horses   are  as  follows : 

(1)  it  is  free  from  dust; 

(2)  there  is  little  loss  in 
handling  it;  (3)  it  is  very 
palatable  when  cut  at  the 
proper  stage ;  (4)  it  does 
not  produce  too  much  lax- 
ness  of  the  bowels  ;  and  (5) 
it  gives  the  necessary  bulk 
and  volume  to  the  ration. 
Timothy  hay  which  con- 
tains some  clover  is  better 

for  foals,  young  horses,  and  brood  mares  on  account  of  the 
higher  protein  content. 

The  Millets.  —  The  principal  millets  used  for  hay  in  the 
United  States  are  foxtail  millet,  including  the  varieties 
common,  German,  Hungarian,  etc. ;  broom-corn  or  hog  mil- 
let;   and   Japanese   barnyard   millet.     Common,    German, 


Fig.  G2.  — ■  Timothy.      (Piper,  Forage 
Plants.) 


THE  HAYS 


249 


and  Hungarian  millets  are  frequently  grown  as  catch  crops 
in  the  corn-belt.  Thickly  seeded,  early  cut  millet  hay  is 
recommended  by  many  authorities  as  useful  for  cattle  and 
sheep  feeding.  It  should  be  fed  sparingly  to  horses  as  it 
may  cause  kidney  disturbances. 

Their  feeding  values   are   quite   low,   however,   and    the 
author  does  not   advise   their   general   use,  although  they 


Fig.  63.  —  Production  of  timothy  in  the  United  States.     One  dot  represents 
100,000  tons.     (Hitchcock,  A  Text-Book  of  Grasses.) 


may  have  their  place  at  times  when  there  is  a  general  scarcity 
of  hay. 

The  sorghums  used  for  hay  include  the  sweet  sorghums, 
the  kafirs,  milo,  feterita,  and  Sudan  grass.  The  other 
sorghums  are  less  valuable  for  hay.  When  used  for  hay  the 
sorghums  should  be  seeded  thickly  so  as  to  prevent  a  coarse 
growth.  They  should  be  cut  at  the  late  milk  stage.  They 
are  probably  about  equal  to  timothy  hay  in  feeding  value. 

Sudan  grass  was  introduced  into  the  South  a  few  years 


250 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


'^f-'-.'A 


miM> 


Fig.  64.  —  Common  mil- 
let. (Voorhees,  Forage 
Crops.) 


ago  and  quite  recently  into  the  corn- 
belt.  It  is  a  drought-resistant  plant. 
Like  the  other  sorghums,  it  should  be 
seeded  thickly  to  prevent  it  from  be- 
coming too  coarse.  It  should  be  cut 
for  hay  when  the  heads  are  in  bloom 
or  earlier.  It  is  a  very  heavy  yielder, 
and  the  hay  is  not  as  coarse  as  that 
from  the  other  sorghums.  In  feeding 
value  it  is  about  equal  to  timothy 
hay.  It  is  often  sown  with  cowpeas 
or  soybeans. 

Red  top  is  especially  valua})le  on 
damp  lowlands.  It  is  grown  exten- 
sively for  hay  in  New  England  and  is 
also  grown  to  considerable  extent  in 
southern  lUinois  and  in  the  South. 
However,  its  use  is  not  restricted  to 
any  particular  locality.  It  yields  a 
fairly  palatable  hay  lower  than  timo- 
thy in  feeding  value. 

Orchard  grass  is  especially  adapted 
to  shady  places.  It  is  grown  mostly 
in  the  South.  It  is  about  two  weeks 
earlier  than  timothy.  It  should  be 
harvested  early.  The  hay  is  woody, 
unpalatable,  and  not  especially  rel- 
ished by  stock  if  cut  after  bloom. 

Bermuda  grass  is  grown  quite  ex- 
tensivel}^  in  the  South.  It  is  to  the 
cotton-belt  what  bluegrass  is  to  the 


THE  HAYS 


251 


Fig.  •  65.  —  German    millet. 
(Voorhees,  Forage  Crops.) 


Fig.  66.  —  Hungarian   millet.    (Voor- 
hees, Forage  Crops.) 


252 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


THE  MAYS 


253 


corn-belt.     It  yields  a  large  amount  of  hay  which  is  about 
equal  to  timothy  in  feeding  value. 

Johnson  grass  is  an  important  hay  crop  in  the  South. 
It  gives  a  heavy  yield  of  hay  which  has  a  fair  feeding  value. 
Johnson  grass  has  the  objection 
that  it  spreads  very  rapidly  and 
may  become  a  pest. 

Prairie  hay  is  made  from  the 
native  grasses  found  on  the  west- 
ern prairies.  The  upland  hay  is 
preferable  to  the  midland  and  low- 
land hay.  It  is  much  used  in  the 
West  and  has  a  fairly  high  feeding 
value,  l)eing  better  than  timothy. 

Brome  grass  is  a  very  import- 
ant pasture  and  hay  grass  in 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  the  Dakotas, 
Manitoba  and  Saskatchewan.  It 
is  quite  resistant  to  cold.  In 
feeding  value  it  is  superior  to 
timothy.  It  is  more  palatable 
than  timothy. 

Tall  oat  grass  is  one  of  the  best 
perennial  grasses  for  poor  land. 
Also  it  will  withstand  consider- 
able drought.  However,  it  is  not 
grown  extensively  in  the  United  States,  but  it  is  grown  to 
some  extent  in  the  South.  It  makes  a  fair  hay,  but  is  not 
very  palatable. 

Italian  rye  grass  is  grown  for  hay  to  a  certain  extent  in 
the  Atlantic  States  and  on  the  Pacific  coast.     In  France  and 


Fig.  68.  —  Red  top.     (Living- 
ston, Field  Crop  Production.) 


254 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 


England  it  furnishes  the  largest  proportion  of  the  market 

hay.     It  makes  a  fairly  palatable  hay. 

Slender  wheat  grass,  sometimes  called  western  rye  grass, 

is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Manitoba,  Alberta, 

Saskatchewan,  and  the 
Dakotas.  The  hay  is 
comparable  to  timothy 
in  feeding  value. 

Western  wheat  grass 
is  also  known  as  blue- 
stem,  blue-joint,  and 
Colorado  blue-stem.  It 
is  quite  resistant  both  to 
drought  and  to  alkali. 
It  grows  native  over  a 
large  part  of  the  West 
and  the  hay  is  valuable 
for  horse  feed. 

Rye,  Oats,  and  Barley. 
—  Fall-sown  rye  and 
spring-sown  oats  or  bar- 
ley are  sometimes  used 
in  the  corn-belt  to  fur- 
nish a  quick-growing, 
excellent,  dust-free,  and 
palatable  hay.  When 
used   for    this    purpose, 

the  cereals  should  be  harvested  before  maturity  while  in  the 

milk.     Oats  or  barley  sown  with  alfalfa  as  a  nurse-crop  are 

usually  cut  for  hay  after  the  young  alfalfa  gets  a  good  start. 

Barley  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  hay  on  the  Pacific 


Fig.  69.  —  Orchard-grass. 
Plants.) 


(Piper,  Forage 


THE  HAYS 


255 


coast.     In  feeding  barley  hay  care  must  be  taken  to  remove 
any  of  the  beards  which  may  have  become  lodged  in  the  ani- 


FiG.  70.  —  Bermuda-grass.     (Piper,  Forage  Plants.) 

mal's  tongue  or  mouth.  Although  these  hays  have  a  fairly 
high  nutritive  value,  it  is  not  Hkely  that  they  will  ever  as- 
sume much  importance  in  the  corn-belt,  on  account  of  their 
high  cost. 


CHAPTER  XV 
FODDERS    AND    STOVERS 

The  term  fodder  may  have  several  meanings.  Many  of 
the  older  writers  upon  the  subject  of  stock  feeding  call  any 
feedingstuff  a  fodder  regardless  of  its  nature.  Of  the  more 
recent  authorities,  some  hmit  the  term  to  roughages  in 
general,  while  others  apply  the  term  to  the  entire  cured 
plant  of  the  large,  coarse  grasses,  such  as  corn,  sorghum,  kafir 
corn,  feterita,  and  milo  maize.  For  the  purpose  of  this 
book,  the  latter  system  of  terminology  has  been  adopted. 
The  term  stover  is  applied  to  the  cured  stalk,  leaves,  and 
husks  of  these  plants  after  the  grain  has  been  removed. 

Corn  fodder  in  the  corn-belt  refers  to  the  entire  corn  plant, 
i.e.  stalk,  leaves,  husk,  and  ears,  cut  when  ripe.  It  is  also 
known  as  shock  corn.  North,  south,  and  west  of  the  corn- 
belt  the  term  corn  fodder  refers  to  corn  which  is  planted 
thickly  and  cut  while  it  is  still  comparatively  green.  It 
contains  only  a  few  small  ears.  Inasmuch  as  corn  is  seldom 
treated  in  this  manner  in  the  corn-belt,  we  shall  limit  the 
meaning  of  the  term  to  the  entire  mature  corn  plant,  grown 
and  cut  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  corn-belt  corn- 
fodder  is  as  follows  :  water,  18.3  per  cent ;  ash,  4.0  per  cent ; 
crude  protein,  6.7  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  17.0  per  cent ;  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  52.1  per  cent ;  and  fat,  1.8  per  cent.  How- 
ever, the  composition  may  vary  greatly,  depending  to  a 

25a 


FODDERS  AND   STOVERS  257 

large  extent  upon  whether  the  fodder  is  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  field  or  is  put  in  the  barn.  Thus,  at  the  Illinois  Station 
corn  fodder  which  was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  shock  con- 
tained 32  per  cent  of  water,  while  corn  fodder  which  was 
placed  in  the  barn  contained  only  7  per  cent.  Further, 
corn  fodder  which  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  shock  will 
lose  a  considera])le  part  of  the  more  digestible  nutrients 
by  leaching.  Hence,  it  should  be  placed  under  shelter  if 
possible. 

Corn  fodder  is  as  valuable  for  feeding  to  cattle  as  the  same 
amount  of  ear  corn  and  corn  stover.  Thus,  if  cattle  are 
kept,  there  is  no  necessity  of  going  to  the  labor  and  expense 
of  husking  all  the  corn  on  the  farm,  although  part  of  it  should 
be  husked  in  order  that  the  proper  proportion  of  concentrates 
and  roughages  may  be  supphed  at  all  times.  Corn  fodder 
consists  of  al)out  50  per  cent  grain  and  50  per  cent  stalk  and 
leaves. 

Fattening  cattle  do  very  well  upon  a  ration  of  com  fodder 
supplemented  by  ear  corn  and  linseed  meal.  Dairy  cows 
also  can  utiUze  corn  fodder  to  the  extent  of  half  their  rough- 
age. In  this  case,  it  is  not  necessary  to  add  shelled  or  ground 
corn  to  the  ration,  but  nitrogenous  concentrates  should  be 
given.  However,  corn  fodder  is  not  as  valuable  for  the 
dairy  cow  as  for  the  fattening  steer.  Sheep  will  utiUze  some 
corn  fodder,  although  they  generally  leave  a  considerable 
amount  of  the  coarser  parts.  Horses  should  not  receive 
corn  fodder  exclusively.  Work  horses  have  not  the  time  to 
digest  it,  and  colts  and  brood  mares  need  additional  protein 
in  their  ration.  Obviously,  corn  fodder  is  too  bulky  for  use 
with  hogs,  although  they  wdll,  of  course,  eat  the  grain  from 
the  husk. 


258 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 


The  sweet  sorghums  or  sorgos  can  be  grown  success- 
fully almost  anywhere  in  the  United  States.  They  are 
drought-resistant  and,  consequently,  they  are  extensively 
grown  in  the  South  and  Southwest  both  for  the  production 
of  molasses  and  as  a  stock-feed.  After  periods  of  extreme 
drought,  or  an  early  frost,  sorghum  often  contains  prussic 


^ 

M^^k 

--"'■tt-- 

Fig.  71.  —  A  field  of  orange  sorghum.     (Voorhees,  Forage  Crop.s.) 

acid,  which  is  deadly  poison.  Second-growth  sorghum  also 
sometimes  contains  prussic  acid.  Hence,  considerable  care 
must  be  exercised  in  feeding  it.  Thoroughly  cured  sorghum 
fodder  may  be  fed  with  httle  danger.  In  feeding  value  it  is 
about  equal  to  corn  fodder.  Sweet  sorghum  fodder,  if  left 
in  the  field,  is  likely  to  sour  after  about  three  months, 
due  to  the  fermentation  of  the  sugar  which  it  contains. 
Kafir  corn,  feterita,  and   milo   maize  are    closely  related 


FODDERS  AND   STOVERS 


259 


Fig.  72.  —  A  field  of  black-bulled  white  kafir.     (Duggar,  Southern 
Field  Crops.) 


260  rRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

to  the  sweet  sorghums.  They  are  very  resistant  to  drought 
and  hot  weather  and  are  grown  extensively  in  Kansas, 
Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  California.  They  are  not  grown  to 
any  great  extent  in  the  corn-belt.  In  feeding  value,  their 
fodders  are  about  the  same  as  corn  fodder.     Like  the  sweet 


]  i',.   To.  —  A  field  of  milo.      (Montgomery,  The  Corn  Crops.) 

sorghums  the}^  often  contain  prussic  acid  after  the  growth 
has  been  stunted  by  extreme  drought  or  by  frost. 

The  broom-corns,  kowliangs,  and  shallu  also  belong  to 
the  sorghums.  They  have  dry,  pithy  stems  and,  conse- 
quently, their  fodders  are  not  as  valuable  for  feed  as  those 
of  the  other  sorghums. 


FODDERS   AND    STOVERS  261 

Corn  Stover.  —  As  previously  stated,  corn  stover  refers 
to  the  entire  corn  plant  after  it  has  been  cut  and  the  ears 
husked  out.  The  average  chemical  composition  of  corn 
stover  as  determined  by  analyses  made  in  the  corn-belt  is 
as  follows :  water,  17.0  per  cent ;  ash,  6.3  per  cent ;  crude 
protein,  5.6  per  cent ;  crude  fiber,  28.0  per  cent ;  nitrogen-free 
extract,  42.1  per  cent;  and  fat,  1.0  per  cent.  As  in  the 
case  of  corn  fodder,  the  method  of  storage  has  considerable 
influence  upon  the  chemical  composition.  Thus,  the  water 
content  may  vary  from  10  per  cent  in  the  case  of  stover 
stored  in  the  barn,  to  55  per  cent  in  the  case  of  stover  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  the  field.  As  in  the  case  of  corn  fodder, 
exposure  to  rain  and  snow  will  cause  a  considerable  loss  of  the 
most  digestible  nutrients  of  the  stover. 

The  feeding  value  and  possibilities  of  corn  stover  are  usu- 
ally underestimated.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  central 
and  western  parts  of  the  corn-belt,  where  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  the  corn  crop  is  cut.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  stover 
contains  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  feeding-value  of 
the  entire  corn  crop. 

Corn  stover  ma}^  profitably  furnish  from  one-third  to 
one-half  of  the  roughage  when  fed  with  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay  to  fattening  cattle.  It  may  furnish  a  large  part  of  the 
ration  of  stock  cattle  which  are  being  wintered  without 
making  any  gain.  Also,  it  may  form  a  large  part  of  the  ration 
of  breeding  cows  and  breeding  ewes.  For  milk  cows  it  has 
about  the  same  value  as  timothy  hay  and  should  be  used  in 
onl}"  limited  amounts.  Corn,  linseed  meal,  and  corn  stover 
will  produce  fair,  though  not  maximum,  gains  with  fattening 
sheep.  It  may  be  fed  also  to  horses,  especially  in  winter, 
when  they  are  not  at  hard  work.     For  this  purpose,  it  has 


262  rRINCIPLES    OF  FEED  IN  a    FARM  ANIMALS 

a  value  only  slightly  below  that  of  timothy  hay.  It  is  said 
to  be  much  better  than  good  hay  for  horses  with  heaves, 
owing  to  its  being  free  from  dust. 

Shredding  com  stover  does  not  increase  its  value  as  a 
feed  but  it  does  make  it  much  easier  to  handle  and  store,  and 
more  valuable  as  a  bedding. 

Sweet  sorghum,  kafir,  feterita,  and  milo  stovers  are 
the  stalk  and  leaves  of  these  plants  after  the  grain  has  been 
removed.  In  feeding  value,  they  are  about  equal  to  corn 
stover. 

Kowliang  and  shallu  stover  are  not  as  valuable  as  stover 
from  the  other  sorghums. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE    STRAWS 

Straw  consists  of  the  stems  and  leaves  of  the  cereals  and 
legumes  after  the  ripe  seeds  have  been  threshed  out.  The 
plant,  as  it  approaches  maturity,  transfers  its  food  material 
from  the  stem  and  leaves  to  the  seed,  leaving  the  stem  and 
leaves  low  in  all  the  nutrients  except  crude  fiber  which,  as 
has  been  shown,  is  quite  indigestible.  Thus  the  straws  are 
very  low  in  digestible  nutrients  and  net  energy.  In  addition, 
they  are  quite  unpalatable.  Consequently,  their  nutritive 
value  is  usually  rather  low. 

Straw  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  when  damp  or 
uncured  hay  is  put  in  the  mow  or  stack.  A  layer  of  hay 
followed  by  a  layer  of  dry  straw  will  enable  one  to  put  in 
hay  which  otherwise  would  mold.  This  practice  also  secures 
an  increased  consumption  of  the  straw  as  it  adds  greatly 
to  its  palatability.  This  method  is  especially  recommended 
for  alfalfa  and  clover  when  the  weather  is  unfavorable  to 
their  proper  curing.  It  not  only  lessens  the  danger  of  the 
hay  molding,  but  it  prevents  the  hay  from  becoming  too 
brittle  and  the  leaves  from  shattering  off.  Inasmuch  as  it 
is  often  more  economical  to  feed  straw  with  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay,  nothing  is  lost  by  the  method. 

The  leading  straws  used  for  stock  feeding  are  oats,  barley, 
wheat,  and  rye.  Of  less  importance  are  threshed  timothy, 
red  top,  millet,  flax,  clover,  alfalfa,  soybeans,  and  cowpeas. 

263 


264  PRINCIPLES   OP  PEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Oat  Straw.  —  The  most  valuable  straw  for  feeding  is 
oat  straw.  Its  chemical  composition  is  as  follows  :  water, 
9.2  per  cent ;  ash,  5.1  jier  cent ;  crude  protein,  4.0  per  cent ; 
crude  fiber,  37.0  per  cent;  nitrogen-free  extract,  42.4  per 
cent;  and  fat,  2.3  per  cent.  The  net  energy  value  is  21.2 
therms  per  100  pounds. 

Oat  straw  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  non-nitrogenous  rough- 
ages for  fattening  cattle  and  sheep,  being  equal  to  timothy 
hay.  It  is  especially  valuable  when  fed  ^vith  corn  and  corn 
silage.  It  should  be  supplemented  by  nitrogenous  con- 
centrates or  legume  hays.  Milk  cows  also  may  use  some  oat 
straw  to  advantage.  Breeding  and  stock  cattle  can  use 
large  amounts  of  oat  straw  to  good  advantage,  as  can  also 
breeding  ewes.  Horses  that  are  not  at  work  may  also  use 
it.     It  is  too  bulky  for  horses  at  hard  work. 

Barley  straw  ranks  next  to  oat  straw  in  feeding  value. 
However,  it  should  not  be  used  to  any  great  extent  for  fatten- 
ing stock,  milk  cows,  or  work  "horses.  It  may  be  used  as  a 
part  of  the  roughage  for  stock  cattle  and  breeding  animals, 
except  hogs. 

Wheat  straw  has  a  lower  feeding  value  than  barley  straw. 
It  may  be  used  as  a  part  of  the  ration  for  wintering  cattle 
and  sheep  when  no  gain  is  desired. 

Rye  straw  has  a  lower  feeding  value  than  wheat  straw. 
It  is  best  suited  for  bedding. 

Timothy,  red  top,  millet,  and  flax  straw  have  but  little 
feeding  value.  They  may  be  used  to  a  certain  extent  in 
wintering  stock  cattle  and  sheep. 

Clover,  alfalfa,  soybean,  and  cowpea  straw  contain  more 
crude  protein  than  the  non-legume  straws.  Threshed  clover 
and  alfalfa  may  be  used  as  a  part  of  the  roughage  for  stock 


THE  STRAWS  265 

cattle,  and  for  breeding  cattle  and  sheep.  Alfalfa  straw  or 
chaff  is  often  ground  and  used  in  alfalfa,  molasses  feeds  or 
sold  as  alfalfa  meal.  When  so  used  it  is  quite  difficult  to 
detect.  Soybean  and  cowpea  straw  are  sometimes  used  for 
fattening  cattle  and  sheep  with  fair  results.  The  condition 
of  the  straw  will  determine  to  a  large  extent  its  value  as  a 
feed. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
PASTURE    OR    FORAGE,    AND    SOILING    CROPS 

Pasture  or  Forage  Crops.  —  Different  authorities  upon 
stock  feeding  make  different  and  often  vague  distinctions 
between  the  terms  forage  and  pasture.  In  fact  few  of  them 
make  the  same  distinction.  Consequently,  we  shall  regard 
the  two  terms  as  synonymous,  although,  as  stated,  a  distinc- 
tion between  them  is  often  made.  For  the  purpose  of  this 
book,  any  crop  which  is  harvested  by  the  animals  themselves 
may  be  regarded  as  a  pasture  or  forage  crop.  Although  a 
pasture  of  forage  crop  is  usually  harvested  in  a  green  or  un- 
ripe condition,  as  in  the  case  of  clover  pasture,  such  is  not 
always  the  case,  as  in  the  case  of  pasturing  stalk  fields  after 
the  corn  has  been  harvested. 

Pasture  is  almost  essential  to  the  successful  breeding  of 
all  classes  of  five  stock.  Pastures  may  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes,  permanent  and  temporary.  A  permanent 
pasture  is  one  which  is  allowed  to  remain  for  a  considerable 
period  of  time.  Permanent  pastures  are  more  generally 
used  on  land  which  is  too  rough  or  too  low  in  fertility  to 
make  cultivation  profitable,  or  they  are  used  on  cheap  land 
where  labor  is  high.  Many  farmers  on  rough,  thin,  cheap 
land  would  make  more  from  their  land  if  it  were  in  permanent 
pasture  than  they  do  by  cultivating  it.  However,  there  is 
considerable  permanent  pasture  on  corn-belt  land  which  is 

266 


PASTURE   OR  FORAGE,   AND   SOILING    CROPS        267 

well  adapted  for  growing  the  cultivated  crops.  It  may  be 
doubtful  if  one  can  profitably  keep  $200  land  in  permanent 
pasture.  If  one  is  breeding  cattle,  horses,  or  sheep  to  any 
extent,  it  probably  will  be  profitable  to  keep  some  permanent 
pasture.  Otherwise,  it  probably  will  be  more  profitable 
to  depend  upon  temporary  pastures.  Temporary  pastures 
usually  are  used  for  only  a  year  or  two  and  are  then  turned 
under  and  a  cultivated  crop  put  in.  They  usually  are  used 
as  a  part  of  nearly  all  good  rotations  and  thus  are  of  value 
not  only  from  the  standpoint  of  their  nutritive  value  but 
also  from  the  standpoint  of  their  fertilizing  value.  Unlike 
permanent  pastures,  no  live  stock  farmer  can  afTord  to  be 
without  temporary  pastures. 

Soiling  Crops.  —  A  soiling  crop  is  one  which  is  cut  green 
and  supphed  to  animals  in  confinement.  Soilage  is  one  of 
the  most  intensive  forms  of  farming.  It  is  more  to  be 
recommended  to  dairy  specialists  than  to  followers  of  other 
systems  of  live  stock  farming.  It  is  commonly  practiced 
in  Europe,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  some  of  the  larger  cities  where 
land  is  very  expensive  and  labor  relatively  cheap.  In  the 
best  systems  of  soiling,  such  crops  as  rye,  clover,  alfalfa, 
oats,  peas,  early  and  late  corn,  sorghum,  etc.,  are  planted 
at  such  a  time  as  to  insure  a  continuous  supply  of  green, 
though  fairly  mature,  feed  from  early  spring  until  late  fall. 
Thus  by  the  time  one  green  crop  is  gone,  another  is  ready  to 
take  its  place.  The  feeding  value  of  soiling  crops  is  about 
the  same  as  that  of  the  same  crops  when  pastured. 

Burkett  ^  makes  the  following  suggestions  for  a  soiling 
scheme.     ''  Among  the  best  soiling  crops  the  following  may 

1  "Feeding  Farm  Animals,"  p.  299. 


268         PRINCIPLES   OF   f'l.F.DlNG  FARM  ANIMALS 

bemcntionecl :  pca.s  and  oats,  rye,  alfalfa,  clover,  vetch  and 
wheat,  soybeans,  cowpeas,  corn,  millet,  sorghum,  and  rape. 
On  some  farms  green  crops  are  fed  throughout  the  season. 
In  a  general  way  the  practice  includes  the  rotation  somewhat 
as  follows,  with  substitutes  in  certain  cases  where  the  season 
has  unfavorably  influenced  the  usual  order  or  makes  possible 
the  use  of  some  local  crop : 

''a.  Winter  r3'e  or  wheat,  to  be  cut  in  May. 

"6,  Green  alfalfa,  to  be  used  any  time. 

"c.  Green  clover,  cut  and  fed  in  June. 

''d.  Peas  and  oats,  sown  early  in  spring,  with  a  succession 
at  two  or  three  intervals. 

"6.  Corn  or  sorghum,  planted  as  early  as  possible,  to  be 
used  during  July  and  August. 

''/.  Millet,  planted  in  June  or  early  July,  and  fed  in  August. 

"^.  The  land  from  which  the  peas  and  oats  and  early  corn 
are  removed  may  be  seeded  to  millet  for  August  feeding." 

A  number  of  rotations  for  soiling  have  been  worked  out  for 
different  localities.  These  tables  usually  give  the  crop  to 
plant,  the  amount  of  seed  per  acre,  the  time  of  seeding,  the 
area  for  ten  cows,  and  the  time  of  cutting. 

The  main  advantage  of  soilage  over  pasturage  is  the  much 
larger  amount  of  feed  which  may  be  removed  from  the 
land,  as  an  animal  on  pasture,  by  tramping,  defecating, 
urinating,  slobbering,  etc.,  destroys  more  feed  than  it  eats. 
Also  one  may  often  get  two  crops  off  a  part  of  the  land  in 
one  year.  Thus,  one  acre  in  soiling  crops  may  support  as 
many  animals  as  two  or  three  acres  in  pasture.  The  dis- 
advantages of  soiling  are  the  greater  expenditure  for  labor, 
seed,  and  fertilizer  in  producing  the  crops,  and  the  greater 
expenditure  for  labor  in  cutting  and  hauling  them  to  the 


PASTURE   OR  FORAGE,   AND   SOILING    CROPS        269 

stock.  The  labor  proposition  alone  is  sufficient  to  prevent 
soiling  ever  becoming  very  popular  in  the  corn-belt,  except 
upon  high-priced  land  near  the  cities. 

However,  partial  soiling  often  may  be  practiced  success- 
fully in  the  corn-belt.  In  the  summer  when  flies  are  bad, 
it  may  be  profitable  to  cut  the  pasture  crops  and  haul  them 
to   the   stock   which   are   kept   in   cool,   dark,   comfortable 


JAM 

FEB. 

MAR. 

APR. 

MAY 

Jl/M£ 

JULY 

AUG. 

SEPT 

OCT. 

NOV. 

DEC. 

CORN 

SILAGE 

P1BU. 

o.Jh 

BUy^   - 

RYE 

rs^ 

2BU. 

f_5-eo* 

X— #- 
X— ^ 

WHEAT 

CLOVER 

Xr^mm 

ALF. 

IC-iC-C^l 

PEA^^ 

-X 
_        y 

UEA 

OATS 

CORN 

y 

f/riBU. 
I'/i-ZBU. 

X     '■ 

SOY 

9E/iN 

X--- 
/MS 

— X 
TURE 

BU. 

°EA___ 
MILLET 

Fig.  74. 


X    =APPROX/MAT£  T/ME OF PLANT/NG 
^mm  =  >»  »      >y   FEED/NG 

'^---^  =  poss/0/L/ry  OF  fefd/ng 

Showing  seed  per  acre,  approximate  time  of  planting  and  feeding 
different  soiling  crops.     (Illinois  Experiment  Station.) 


quarters  during  the  day  and  turned  out  to  graze  at  night.  If 
one  desires  to  feed  green  alfalfa  to  cattle  it  is  best  to  cut  it 
and  carry  it  to  the  stock  rather  than  pasture  it,  for  reasons 
already  mentioned.  In  seasons  of  exceptional  drought,  when 
the  pastures  are  all  gone,  it  is  often  feasible  to  cut  green 
corn  or  other  crops  and  feed  them  to  the  stock  in  order  to 
help  tide  them  over  until  the  pasture  comes  again. 

Hayden,  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,^  suggests  the 

1  Cir.  152. 


270  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM  ANIMALS 

system  of  soilage  for  dairy  cows  for  Illinois  as  given  in 
Figure  74. 

Of  course,  this  plan  may  be  modified  to  suit  various  condi- 
tions. 

Inasmuch  as  the  practice  of  soilage  is  quite  complicated, 
and  as  it  is  but  httle  used  in  the  corn-belt,  we  shall  confine 
our  discussion  of  it  to  these  few  remarks  and  refer  the  student 
to  other  sources  for  more  detailed  information.^ 

In  general  the  pasture  and  soiling  crops  may  be  divided 
into  two  sub-classes,  legumes  and  grasses. 

LEGUMES 

The  principal  legume  used  for  pasture  in  the  corn-belt 
is  red  clover.  Others  of  importance  in  the  United  States 
are  alfalfa,  mammoth  clover,  white  clover,  alsike  clover, 
sweet  clover,  crimson  clover,  Japan  clover,  velvet  beans, 
peanuts,  beggar  weed,  Canada  field  peas,  cowpeas,  soy  beans, 
and  vetch. 

Red  clover  should  be  grown  on  every  farm  in  the  corn- 
belt  where  alfalfa  is  not  grown.  Its  value  as  a  hay  has 
already  been  noted.  As  a  pasture  and  soiling  crop  it  is  no 
less  valuable.  No  other  clover,  excepting  sweet  clover, 
furnishes  as  much  pasture  in  one  season,  and  no  other  clover 
is  as  palatable. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  red  clover  pasture 
is  as  follows  :  water,  70.8  per  cent ;  ash,  2.1  per  cent ;  crude 

1  Henry  and  Morrison,  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  p.  264.  Burkett,  "First 
Principles  of  Feeding  Farm  Animals,"  p.  289.  Jordan,  "The  Feeding,  of 
Animals,"  p.  263.  Voorhees,  "Forage  Crops,"  p.  27.  Conn.  (Storrs)  Bui. 
9;  Reports,  1891,  1895.  Maryland  Bui.  98.  Mass.  Reports,  1887-1891, 
1893;  Bui.  72,  1.33.  New  Jersey  Bui.  158;  Report,  1902.  Penn.  Reports, 
1889,  1904-1905;  Bui.  65,  75,  109.  Vermont  Bui.  158.  Wis.  Report  1885; 
Bui.  103,  235.     Iowa  Bui.  15,  19,  23,  27.     Mich.  Bui.  223. 


PASTURE    OR   FORAGE,   AND    SOILING    CROPS        271 

protein,  4.4  per  cent;  crude  fiber,  8.1  per  cent;  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  13.5  per  cent;  and  fat,  1.1  per  cent.  Its  net 
energy  value  is  16.2  therms  per  100  pounds.  In  chemical 
composition  it  is  not  much  different  from  bluegrass.  It  is 
a  little  higher  in  protein  and  a  Httle  lower  in  ash.  It  is  not 
as  safe  a  feed,  however,  as  is  bluegrass.  When  clover  is 
rank  and  succulent,  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  must  be  grazed 
on  it  with  caution,  especially  at  first,  to  avoid  bloating.  This 
danger  may  be  lessened  by  having  the  animals  full  of  dry 
hay  before  turning  them  into  clover,  by  turning  them  in 
at  first  for  only  an  hour  or  two  when  the  dew  is  off  and  the 
pasture  is  as  dry  as  possible,  and  by  keeping  dry  hay  or 
straw  accessible  to  them  in  the  pasture.  Clover  pasture 
should  not  be  grazed  too  closely,  and  stock  should  be  kept  off 
when  the  ground  is  very  soft,  as  it  is  rather  easily  killed. 
Clover  is  often  used  for  pasture  after  the  first  cutting  has 
been  used  for  hay. 

Clover  pasture  is  recommended  for  all  classes  of  farm  ani- 
mals if  care  is  taken  to  prevent  bloat.  It  is  doubtful  if  it 
is  profitable  to  feed  any  grain  to  milk  cows  which  are  on  good 
clover  pasture.  If  rapid  fattening  is  desired,  corn  should 
be  fed  to  steers  on  clover  pasture.  Ordinarily,  however,  this 
is  not  done.  Grain  is  not  necessary  for  breeding  cows  and 
calves  on  clover  pasture.  It  is  well  to  give  colts  on  clover 
pasture  some  grain. 

Clover  pasture  furnishes  about  a  maintenance  ration  for 
hogs ;  hence  if  any  fattening  is  desired,  grain  should  be  fed 
with  it.  Two  or  three  jwunds  daily  per  100  pounds  of  pig 
of  a  mixture  of  ten  parts  corn  and  one  part  tankage  should 
be  sufficient  for  good  fattening  gains.  No  more  grain  should 
be  fed  than  they  will  clean  up.     If  corn  is  very  high  in  price, 


272  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

it  will  1)0  profitiiblc  to  cut  down  the  grain  ration  and  make, 
them  eat  more  clover.  In  general,  the  greatest  economy 
of  forage  for  hogs  is  brought  about  when  they  arc  fed  from 
one-half  to  two-thirds  of  a  full-feed  of  grain  in  addition  to 
the  pasture.  The  number  of  hogs  that  may  be  kept  on  an 
acre  of  clover  will  depend  on  the  abundance  of  the  forage  and 
the  size  of  the  hogs,  ])ut  in  general  eight  to  twelve  head  may 
be  used  on  good  clover. 

Alfalfa,  although  probably  the  most  valual^lc  hay,  is  not 
adapted  to  heavy  pasturing,  especially  in  the  corn-belt,  as  a 
little  tramping  soon  kills  it.  However,  if  one  pasture^  it 
only  lightly,  the  results  are  nearly  as  bad,  as  the  top  of  the 
plant  must  be  removed  when  the  little  shoots  come  at  the 
base  of  the  plant  in  order  for  it  to  make  a  satisfactory  growth. 
Probably  the  most  successful  way  to  pasture  alfalfa  is  to 
turn  a  comparatively  small  number  of  animals  into  a  field 
of  it  and  then  cut  it  for  hay  when  the  shoots  come  up  at  the 
base  of  the  plant.  In  this-  way,  not  much  is  tramped  out,  as 
the  animals  ordinarily  will  travel  in  run-ways  and  eat  only 
along  the  edges  of  these  run-ways.  The  alfalfa  is  then  cut 
for  hay  when  the  shoots  appear  at  the  base.  Alfalfa  is 
much  better  for  soiling  than  for  pasture.  Green  alfalfa, 
especially  when  wet,  has  a  very  decided  tendency  to  cause 
bloat.  Hence  considerable  care  should  l^c  exercised  in  its 
use. 

Alfalfa  pasture  is  excellent  for  cattle  and  sheep  of  all 
kinds.  The  trouble  is  that,  unless  the  precautions  mentioned 
above  are  taken,  the  stock  are  not  good  for  the  alfalfa.  There 
is  perhaps  no  forage  crop  which  will  produce  as  much  pork 
per  acre  as  alfalfa.  Many  breeders  report  that  brood  mares 
are  difficult  to  get  in  foal  when  turned  on  alfalfa  pasture. 


VASTURE>  OR  FORAGE,  AND   SOILING   CROPS        273 

Colts  may  be  pastured  on  alfalfa,  but  it  is  probably  not  profit- 
able in  the  corn-belt,  although  it  may  be  so  farther  west. 

Mammoth  clover  is  a  valuable  pasture  and  soihng  crop, 
being  equal  to  red  clover.  If  not  pastured  too  heavily  in 
the  spring,  it  may  be  cut  later  for  hay. 

White  and  alsike  clovers  are  occasionally  used  as  pasture 
crops,  but  usually  with  timothy  or  bluegrass,  as  they  add 
materially  to  the  feeding  value  of  either  of  the  latter  crops. 
In  feeding  value  they  are  equal  to  red  clover.  White  clover 
is  said  to  cause  excessive  "  slobbering  "  in  horses.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  horsemen  that  wet  alsike  poisons  the 
noses,  faces,  and  legs  of  white-faced  and  white-legged  horses. 
It  is  very  doubtful  if  this  is  true,  however. 

Sweet  Clover.  —  Being  one  of  the  legumes,  sweet  clover 
is  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter.  It  makes  excellent 
pasture  for  horses,  sheep,  cattle,  and  hogs.  Its  feeding  value 
is  about  the  same  as  that  of  red  clover.  It  is  said  that  it  is 
not  as  liable  to  cause  bloat  as  red  clover  or  alfalfa. 
Ordinarily,  stock  dislike  the  taste  of  it  at  first,  but  by  creat- 
ing an  appetite  for  it  by  turning  them  in  early  in  the  spring 
before  other  green  feed  has  been  started,  they  soon  learn  to 
relish  it.  It  should  be  pastured  heavily  enough  to  keep  it 
eaten  down  closely,  so  that  there  will  be  an  abundance  of 
fresh  shoots  for  grazing  purposes  at  all  times,  as  animals 
dislike  the  hard,  woody  stems  which  contain  ihe  bitter 
tasting  substance,  cumarin ;  clipping  with  the  mower  from 
time  to  time  will  answer  the  same  purpose.  An  acre  of  sweet 
clover  often  will  support  15  to  20  hogs.  They  should  be 
"  rung,"  however,  to  prevent  them  from  injuring  the  roots. 
After  a  few  years  sweet  clover  usually  dies  out  ^nd  is  sup- 
planted by  bluegrass. 


274  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANntALS 

Crimson  clover  is  much  better  for  pasture  than  for  ha5^ 
owing  to  danger  from  the  barbed  hairs  on  the  cured  blossoms. 
For  pasture  it  is  equal  to  red  clover  in  feeding  value,  but  it  is 
not  as  good  a  yielder  in  the  corn-belt.  It  can  })e  pastured  in 
the  spring  al)out  two  weeks  earlier  than  red  clover. 

Japan  clover,  or  lespedeza  is  valuable  as  a  pasture  for 
all  classes  of  farm  animals.  Though  they  usually  do  not 
like  it  at  first,  they  soon  learn  to  relish  it.  It  is  considered 
to  be  the  best  pasture  crop  for  the  poor,  clay  soils  of  the 
South.  It  is  equal  to  red  clover  in  feeding  value.  It  does 
not  cause  bloat.  It  will  withstand  heavy  pasturing  and 
will  maintain  itself  indefinitely  if  not  pastured  too  heavily. 

Velvet  beans  are  used  sometimes  for  pasture  in  the  extreme 
South.  Owing  to  the  viny  nature  of  the  plants,  they  are 
usually  grown  with  corn,  millet,  or  sorghum  to  support 
the  vine.  They  are  pastured  after  the  pods  have  matured  in 
the  fall.  They  are  quite  valuable  and  furnish  an  enormous 
amount  of  roughage.  It  has  been  said  that  they  cause 
abortion  in  cattle  and  hogs  and  blind  staggers  in  horses,  but 
this  is  not  true. 

Peanuts  make  an  especially. valuable  forage  in  the  South 
for  hogs.  The  hogs  are  turned  in  and  allowed  to  root  up  the 
peanuts.  The  tops  of  the  plants  are  also  valuable  for  other 
classes  of  live  stock. 

Beggar  weed  is  sometimes  grown  in  the  extreme  South 
for  pasture.     It  is  well  liked  by  stock. 

Canada  field  peas  are  often  grown  in  Canada  and  northern 
United  States  for  pasture  and  for  soiUng.  They  are  some- 
times grown  with  oats  and  sometimes  grown  alone.  They 
are  especially  valuable  for  sheep-  and  hog-pasture.  Hogs 
are  turned  in  when  the  peas  are  full-sized,  while  they  are 


PASTURE    OR   FORAGE,  AND    SOILING    CROPS        275 

allowed  to  mature  for  sheep.  No  other  feed  need  be  given 
to  either  sheep  or  hogs  on  pea  forage.  They  are  also  good 
for  milk  cows,  and  are  often  used  for  soiling. 


(DujiisAr,  .Southern  Fiekl  Crop.s.) 


Cowpeas,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  protein  and  mineral 
matter  which  they  contain,  furnish  an  admirable  pasture, 
especially  in  the  South.     Certain  varieties  may  be  grown 


276  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FABM  ANIMALS 


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PASTURE   OR  FORAGE,   AXD   SOILING    CROPS        277 

successfully  in  the  corn-belt.  They  ma}'  l)e  used  as  pasture 
for  all  classes  of  live  stock,  but  probably  most  profitably 
with  hogs.  For  hog  pasture  they  may  be  sown  alone,  planted 
with  corn,  or  sown  in  the  corn  after  the  last  cultivation.  If 
hogs  have  access  to  cowpeas,  no  additional  nitrogenous  feed 
need  be  given,  but  they  should  have  a  two-thirds  feed  of 
corn.  As  a  pork  producer,  cowpea  pasture  ranks  consider- 
ably below  clover,  alfalfa,  or  rape  pasture. 

Soybeans.  —  Like  cowpeas,  soybean  forage  is  used  prin- 
cipally for  hogs.  Hogs  relish  soybeans  better  than  cowpeas. 
Carmichael  and  Eastwood,  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  ^ 
found  that  clover,  rape,  soj^beans,  and  bluegrass  as  forages 
for  pork  production  ranked  in  the  order  named.  A  one-half 
full-feed  of  corn  to  hogs  on  soybeans  will  result  in  good  gains. 
Soybeans  may  be  planted  in  the  corn  for  hog  pasture,  but 
cowpeas  are  much  better  suited  for  this  purpose. 

Common  vetch  is  often  used  for  pasture  in  the  West  along 
the  Pacific  coast.  Hairy  vetch  may  be  used  in  the  corn-belt. 
It  furnishes  a  valuable  pasture,  ranking  in  feeding  value 
with  alfalfa.  It  should  be  seeded  with  a  cereal,  such  as 
oats  or  rye,  to  furnish  support  to  the  weak  vetch  vine.  It 
is  quite  valuable  for  soihng. 

GRASSES 

The  leading  grasses  used  in  the  corn-belt  for  pasture  are 
Kentucky  bluegrass  and  timothy.  Other  grasses  used  for 
pasture  are  Canada  bluegrass,  the  millets,  the  sorghums, 
red  top,  orchard  grass,  Bermuda  grass,  Johnson  grass, 
brome  grass,  rj^e,  oats,  barle}^,  wheat,  corn,  perennial  rye 
grass,  and  meadow  fescue. 

1  Bui.  242. 


278  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 

Kentucky  bluegrass  is  the  preeminent  grass  of  the  per- 
manent pastures  of  the  corn-belt.  It  is  also  called  June 
grass.  It  is  not  adapted  to  temporary  pastures  as  several 
seasons  are  required  to  bring  it  to  a  maximum  growth. 
However,  after  it  once  gets  a  good  start,  it  will  last  for  years 
if  properly  cared  for.  In  order  to  use  bluegrass  successfully, 
one  must  have  a  knowledge  of  its  habit  of  growth.  The 
plant  begins  growth  early  in  the  spring  and  bears  seed  late 
in  May  or  early  in  June.  Then  a  dormant  period  of  several 
V  eeks  follows  during  which  there  is  Httle  growth.  The 
midsummer  and  fall  rains  revive  the  plants,  and  another 
period  of  growth  ensues,  during  which  the  plants  store  nu- 
trients for  the  coming  season's  seed-bearing.  Thus,  one  should 
not  rely  upon  the  grass  for  a  steady  and  uniform  feed  supply 
throughout  the  entire  season.  It  should  not  be  stocked, 
certainly  not  heavily,  before  May  or  June,  although  some- 
tiaies  the  general  practice  seems  to  be  to  turn  stock  on  pas- 
ture early  in  the  spring  before  the  grass  gets  a  start  and  while 
it  is  still  ''  washy."  Sometimes  it  is  profitable  not  to  stock 
heavily  until  late  summer,  keeping  the  stock  on  it  until 
early  winter.     It  should  not  be  grazed  too  closely. 

The  chemical  composition  of  bluegrass  is  as  follows : 
water,  65.1  per  cent ;  ash,  2.8  per  cent  ;  crude  protein,  4.1 
per  cent;  crude  fiber,  9.1  per  cent;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
17.6  per  cent;  and  fat,  1.3  per  cent.  It  is  the  richest  grass 
in  crude  protein,  ash,  and  fat.  In  addition  to  this,  its  pala- 
t ability  makes  it  relished  by  all  classes  of  live  stock. 

Bluegrass  pastuie  is  almost  a  necessity  for  the  successful 
})reeding  of  any  class  of  farm  animals.  It  makes  an  ideal 
ration  for  the  mare  and  colt,  the  cow  and  calf,  and  the  ewe 
and  Iamb.     The  sow  and  pigs  are  also  greatly  benefited  by 


PASTURE   OR  FORAGE,  AND   SOILING   CROPS       279 


Fig.  77.  —  Panicles  of  Canada  blue  grass  (left)  and  Kentucky  blue 
grass  (right).     (Piper,  Forage  Plants.) 


280  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

having  the  run  of  a  bluegrass  pasture  in  addition  to  their 
concentrates.  Milch  cows  do  well  on  it.  They  may  give 
more  milk  if  given  a  few  pounds  of  grain  in  addition  to  the 
pasture,  but  the  cost  of  production  is  increased  and  the 
practice  may  not  be  economical.  For  fattening  cattle, 
sheep,  and  hogs,  bluegrass  pasture  makes  an  admirable 
roughage.  If  rapid  fattening  is  desired,  grain  should  be 
given  in  addition.  If  only  fair  gains  are  desired,  no  grain 
need  be  fed  except  in  the  case  of  hogs.  Hogs  on  blue- 
grass  should  receive  one-half  to  a  two-thirds  full-feed  of 
concentrates.  In  certain  parts  of  Virginia  and  West 
Virginia,  many  cattle  are  fattened  for  the  export  trade, 
attaining  a  very  superior  finish  upon  bluegrass  pasture 
alone  without  the  use  of  any  grain.  Work  horses  may  be 
turned  out  on  bluegrass  at  night  after  they  have  eaten 
their  grain. 

It  usually  requires  1  to  2  acres  of  bluegrass  for  a  horse  or 
cow.  One  acre  of  good  bluegrass  will  provide  forage  for 
10  to  14  hogs  or  5  to  7  sheep.  It  is  maintained  by  manj^  that 
one  cannot  afford  to  keep  expensive  corn-belt  land  in  blue- 
grass.  For  the  average  farmer  this  may  be  true,  but  it  is 
almost  essential  to  the  breeder  of  pure-bred  live  stock.  Also 
the  increasing  cost  and  scarcity  of  farm  labor  may  make  it 
economical  to  keep  some  of  the  land  in  permanent  pasture. 

Timothy.  —  Timothy  is  more  widely  grown  than  any 
other  grass  in  this  country.  It  may  be  pastured  earlier  in 
the  spring  than  bluegrass,  but  it  does  not  produce  so  much 
growth  in  the  fall.  It  is  neither  as  palatable  nor  as  valuable 
a  feed  as  bluegrass.  It  is,  however,  better  adapted  for 
temporary  pasture,  as  it  can  be  fully  established  in  a  single 
season.     For  this  purpose  it  should  be  mixed  with  clover. 


PASTURE   OR  FORAGE,  AND   SOILING    CROPS        281 

Timothy  should  be  grazed  so  closely  that  but  few  seed  stems 
are  thrown  up. 

The  chemical  composition  of  timothy  pasture  is  as  follows  : 
water,  61.6  per  cent;  ash,  2.1  per  cent;  crude  protein,  3.1 
per  cent;  crude  fiber,  11.8  per  cent;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
20.2  per  cent;  and  fat,  1.2  per  cent.  As  indicated  by  the 
chemical  composition,  timothy  has  not  as  high  a  feeding 
value  as  bluegrass.  Still,  if  it  contains  some  clover  to  make 
up  the  deficiency  in  the  protein  and  ash,  it  answers  very 
well  for  a  temporary  pasture,  especially  during  the  spring  and 
summer.  It  may  be  used  for  all  classes  of  livestock.  It  is 
less  valuable  for  hogs  than  for  any  other  class  of  farm  animals. 

Canada  bluegrass  is  most  abundant  in  eastern  Canada 
and  northeastern  United  States.  It  will  grow  under  more 
adverse  conditions  than  Kentucky  bluegrass,  which  it 
resembles  in  appearance  and  habit  of  growth.  It  is  not 
quite  as  high  in  feeding  value  as  Kentucky  bluegrass,  but 
it  is  a  good  substitute  for  it. 

The  millets,  although  little  used  for  pasture,  are  exten- 
sively grown  for  soiling  crops.  They  are  quite  valuable 
when  so  used. 

The  sorghums  are  sometimes  used  for  pasture.  Serious 
trouble  and  sometimes  death  often  result  from  cattle  or 
horses  eating  second-growth  sorghum.  This  also  happens 
sometimes  from  eating  first-growth  sorghum.  This  usually 
occurs  after  the  growth  of  the  plant  has  been  temporarily 
checked  by  severe  drought  or  frost.  The  difficulty  seems  to 
be  due  to  the  formation  of  prussic  acid  in  the  plant.  Sweet 
sorghum,  kafir  corn,  milo  maize,  Sudan  grass,  and  feterita 
all  have  the  same  objection.  In  general,  it  is  safer  not  to 
pasture  the  second-growth  of  these  crops. 


282 


PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 


The  sorghums  are  excellent  for  soiling;  and  are  probably 
used  more  extensively  for  this  purpose  than  any  other  crop 
in  the  United  States. 

Red  top,  as  previously  stated,  is  adapted  for  growth  on 
poor,  wet  lowlands.  It  is  more  valuable  for  pasture  than 
for  hay. 

Orchard  grass  does  well  in  shady  places,  as  in  orchards. 
It  will  stand  heavy  grazing  and  furnishes  pasture  very 
early  in  the  spring  and  very  late  in  the  fall. 

Bermuda  grass  is  the 
ordinary  non-legume  pas- 
ture of  the  South.  It  is 
very  valuable  and  nutri- 
tious. It  is  said  that  one 
acre  of  good  Bermuda 
grass  will  support  two 
head  of  cattle  or  ten  head 
of  sheep  for  eight  months. 
Johnson  grass,  al- 
though used  for  hay  in 
the  South,  is  not  as  valu- 
able for  pasture,  as,  like 
the  sorghums,  it  some- 
times contains  prussic 
acid. 

Brome     grass    is    the 

most  important   pasture 

grass  of  the  Dakotas  and 

Saskatchewan.     It  is  also 

^.       ^  used  extensively  for  pas- 

Bronie-grass.     (Piper,  rorai^e 

Plants.)  ture     in     Kansas     and 


PASTVRE   OR   FORAGE,   AND   SOILING    CROPS        283 

Nebraska.  It  is  quite  resistant  to  drought  and  tramping, 
furnishes  an  abundance  of  pasture  both  in  the  early  spring 
and  in  the  late  fall,  and  is  very  palatable.  It  is  nearly 
as  valuable  as  bluegrass. 

Rye.  —  Fall-sown  rye  is  sometime  used  for  pasture.  It 
is  hardy,  grows  on  poor  soils,  comes  early  in  the  spring  and, 
under  optimum  conditions,  may  provide  pasture  both  in 
the  fall  and  again  in  the  spring.  It  is  often  possible  to 
obtain  some  kind  of  a  crop  after  the  rye,  or  clover  and  grass 
seed  may  be  sown  in  it  in  the  spring.  Rye  should  be  pas- 
tured closely  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  growth  has  really 
started.  If  it  is  pastured  for  only  a  short  time,  a  good  crop 
of  grain  often  may  be  harvested  from  it.  Grain  should  be 
fed  with  rye  pasture,  as  it  is  very  succulent  and  laxative. 
Although  it  is  not  advisable  to  make  a  practice  of  sowing 
rye  for  pasture,  it  is  often  profitable  when  other  pasture  is 
scarce. 

It  is  especially  good  before  the  other  pastures  come  in  the 
early  spring  for  ewes  and  nursing  lambs,  and  also  for  sows 
and  pigs.  However,  it  will  be  noticed  in  the  latter  case 
that  any  bluegrass  in  the  fence  rows  will  be  eaten  off  clean 
before  the  pigs  will  touch  rye,  showing  that  they  much  prefer 
the  bluegrass.  Also,  if  sheep  are  allowed  other  pasture,  they 
will  not  go  back  to  rye.  It  often  is  profitable,  especially 
when  rye  is  badly  lodged,  to  turn  in  hogs  to  harvest  it  when 
ripe.  If  milch  cows  are  pastured  upon  rye,  it  imparts  a 
bitter  flavor  to  the  milk  which  is  quite  offensive.  Green 
rye  is  often  used  for  soiling. 

Oats  alone  are  seldom  used  for  pasture.  However,  as 
has  already  been  mentioned,  oats  and  peas  are  often  sown 
together  and  used  for  pasture  or  soiling. 


284  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Barley  is  sometimes  sown  in  the  spring  and  used  for  pas- 
ture in  the  North. 

Wheat  is  seldom  sown  for  pasture.  However,  when  it 
becomes  so  badly  lodged  that  it  is  impossible  to  harvest  it 
for  the  grain,  it  makes  good  pasture  for  hogs.  ''  Hogging 
down  "  wheat,  however,  is  quite  expensive  unless  it  cannot 
be  harvested  in  any  other  way. 

Corn  is  seldom  pastured  green,  although  it  is  used  in  many 
systems  of  soiling. 

It  is  a  common  custom  in  the  newer  parts  of  the  corn-belt 
to  husk  the  corn  in  the  field,  leaving  the  stalks  stand.     These 


f^^PI 

^^^^^**ap-=:srr^A 

^^-^  ■fy:^y^^,,.:r^':<Sj§^ 

Su' ...     ^        ■  -  - 

Fig.  79.  —  Hogging  down  corn.     (Iowa  Experiment  Station.) 

are  pastured  by  turning  in  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  Stalk- 
fields  pastured  in  this  way  will  furnish  but  little  more  than  a 
maintenance  ration  and  should  be  supplemented  by  other 
feeds  if  much  gro^vth  or  fattening  is  expected.  "  Corn-stalk 
disease,"  a  mysterious  and  usually  fatal  disease,  sometimes 
attacks  animals  which  are  turned  into  stalk-fields  during  the 
fall  and  early  winter.  No  one  seems  to  know  the  cause, 
means  of  prevention,  or  cure  for  ''  corn-stalk  disease." 
Less  frequently  it  attacks  horses  and  cattle  which  are  fed 
on  cured  corn  stover  or  corn  fodder.     It  seems  to  be  more 


PASTURE   OR  FORAGE,  AND   SOILING   CROPS        285 


prevalent  when  the  growth  of  the  corn  plant  has  been  pre- 
maturely checked  by  severe  drought  or  early  frost.  Some 
authorities  believe  that  its  poisonous  nature  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  prussic  acid,  as  in  the  case  of  immature,  second- 
growth  sorghum- 
Others  believe  it  to 
be  due  to  a  mold  or 
fungus  on  the  plant. 
Because  of  the  danger 
from  cornstalk  dis- 
ease, whatever  it  may 
be,  the  author  does 
not  recommend  the 
use  of  stalk  pasture 
for  valuable  animals. 
On  account  of  the 
cost  and  the  scarcity 
of  farm  labor,  "  hog- 
ging down  "  corn  is 
coming  into  favor  as 
an  economical  way  of 
harvesting  part  of 
the  corn  crop.  It 
apparently  has  been 
demonstrated  that 
more  pounds  of  pork 
may  be  produced 
from  an  acre  of  corn  if  it  is  harvested  by  the  hogs  them- 
selves than  if  the  grain  is  husked  and  fed  to  them.^  For 
the  best  results,  hogs  should  not  he  given  access  to  the 

1  See  Missouri  Bui.  95  and  110,  and  Iowa  Bui.  143. 


Fig.  80.  —  Meadow-fescue. 
Forage  Plants.) 


(Piper, 


28G  PRINCIPLES   OF   FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

entire  field,  but  should  be  limited  to  that  portion  of  the 
field  which  the}'  will  clean  up  in  ten  daj's  or  two  weeks. 
This  may  be  done  by  means  of  a  movable  or  temporary 
fence.  Before  being  turned  in,  they  should  be  brought 
gradually  to  a  full-feed  of  new  corn.  They  should  be  turned 
in  when  the  dent  has  just  been  formed  in  the  corn  kernel. 
C'owpeas,  soybeans,  rape,  rye,  or  other  forage  crops  planted 
in  the  corn  after  the  last  cultivation  add  considerably  to  the 
feeding  value.  An  adjoining  pasture  of  clover  or  alfalfa  is 
advantageous  if  there  is  no  legume  forage  in  the  cornfield. 
If  no  leguminous  forage  is  supplied  with  the  corn,  the  hogs 
should  receive  some  tankage,  middhngs,  or  linseed  meal  in 
addition. 

Perennial  rye  grass  is  the  principal  pasture  grass  of 
Europe,  occupying  the  same  position  there  as  bluegrass 
holds  in  the  United  States.  However,  it  is  of  little  impor- 
tance in  the  United  States. 

Meadow  fescue  is  used  some  for  pasture  in  Kansas  and 
Nebi'aska.  It  is  quite  palatable  and  is  considered  especially 
valuaijle  for  fattening  cattle. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
SILAGE 

Silage  consists  of  finely  cut  plants,  harvested  before 
maturity  while  they  still  contain  considerable  water,  and 
compressed  compactly  in  a  silo  and  allowed  to  ferment. 
During  the  fermentation  a  part  of  the  sugars  in  the  plant 
are  broken  down,  with  the  formation  of  organic  acids,  such 
as  lactic,  acetic,  and  butyric  acids  and  carbon  dioxide  gas. 
After  a  certain  amount  of  these  acids  have  been  formed, 
they  act  as  an  antiseptic  and  prevent  further  fermentation. 
The  resulting  product  is  a  succulent,  palatable,  nutritious, 
and  cheap  feed  which  may  be  used  to  advantage  for  nearly 
all  classes  of  livestock. 

Silos  are  of  various  types.  They  may  be  made  of  wooden 
staves,  of  lath  and  plaster,  of  brick,  of  stone,  of  concrete,  of 
concrete  blocks,  of  concrete  staves,  of  steel,  and  of  vitrified 
tile.  In  semiarid  parts  of  the  country,  a  pit  is  dug  in  the 
ground  and  used  as  a  silo.  It  is  not  within  the  province  of 
this  book  to  discuss  the  relative  merits  of  the  different 
types  of  silos.  There  are,  however,  three  essential  features 
which  a  good  silo  should  have.  (1)  The  walls  of  the  silo 
should  be  impervious  to  moisture  and  air.  The  fundamental 
principle  in  the  preservation  of  silage  is  the  retention  of 
moisture  within  the  silage  and  the  exclusion  of  air.  For 
this  reason,  the  silo  wall  must  be  non-porous.  Moisture 
must  be  prevented  from  passing  out  and  air  from  passing 

287 


288  rRINCITLES    OF   FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 

in.  (2)  The  wnlls  of  a  silo  must  be  strong  enough  to  resist 
the  bursting  pressure  of  tlie  silage  which  acts  outward  in  all 
directions  as  the  silage  settles.  The  friction  of  the  silage 
on  the  walls  and  the  weight  of  the  material  of  the  walls  pro- 
duce a  crushing  action  which  is  very  great  near  the  bottom 
of  the  silo.  (3)  To  permit  the  silage  to  settle  freely  and  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  air  pockets,  the  walls  should  be 
smooth  on  the  inside  and  not  have  shoulders  or  offsets. 
Air  pockets  result  in  more  or  less  spoiled  silage. 

There  are  a  number  of  advantages  in  using  the  silo,  but 
the  greatest  of  them  is  the  possibility  it  affords  of  utilizing 
all  the  corn  crop.  There  was  a  time  when  land  was  cheap 
and  there  was  an  abundance  of  coarse  feed  at  hand  that 
had  little  market  value.  Under  these  conditions  it  was 
not  a  serious  loss  if  a  portion  of  the  corn  crop  was  wasted. 
At  the  present  time,  with  both  farm  lands  and  feeds  high 
in  price,  conditions  are  quite  different.  When  the  ears  of 
corn  are  husked  in  the  ordinary  way  and  the  stalks  left  in 
the  field,  from  60  to  70  per  cent  of  the  nutritive  value  of  the 
corn  crop  is  taken  with  the  ears,  while  30  to  40  per  cent 
remains  with  the  stalks.  It  is  possible  to  utiHze  a  small 
portion  of  this  nutriment  by  turning  stock  into  the  stalk 
fields  in  the  ordinary  manner.  However,  the  benefits  de- 
rived in  this  way  are  comparatively  small  and  often  not 
worth  the  risk  of  losing  valuable  animals  from  corn-stalk 
disease. 

The  next  most  important  advantage  of  silage  is  its  palat- 
ability.  A  silo  not  only  preserves  the  succulence  of  the 
green  fodder  but  the  ])acterial  fermentations  which  the  fodd(n- 
undergoes  develops  large  amounts  of  organic  acids  and  other 
substances  which  add  greatly  to  the  palatability  of  the 


SILAGE  289 

silage.  The  feeding  of  silage  in  the  winter  makes  it  possible 
to  keep  the  animals  in  practically  the  same  condition  that 
they  are  when  on  pasture  in  the  summer.  A  good  quality 
of  silage  is  so  palatable  that  many  animals  will  eat  it  in 
preference  to  grain,  and  cows  will  eat  silage  even  when  on 
good  pasture. 

As  compared  with  the  cutting,  shocking,  and  husking 
of  the  corn,  the  use  of  the  silo  is  a  distinct  saving  of  labor. 
When  putting  corn  in  the  silo  it  is  handled  but  once  and 
then  under  the  most  favorable  conditions.  That  is  to  say, 
it  is  handled  in  large  quantities  and  with  an  organized  force 
and  under  favorable  weather  conditions.  The  use  of  the 
silo  is  also  a  cheap  and  convenient  way  of  handling  large 
amounts  of  coarse  fodder. 

In  unpropitious  weather,  the  hay  crop  may  be  put  in 
the  silo  as  a  means  of  saving  the  crop. 

Although  other  crops  may  be  put  in  the  silo,  corn  is  prac- 
tically the  only  one  so  used  in  the  corn-belt.  Corn  and 
cowpeas  are  sometimes  used,  as  the  peas  add  considerable 
protein  to  the  silage.  Clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  soybeans, 
kafir,  sorghum,  cannery  refuse,  beet  pulp,  etc.,  are  sometimes 
put  in  the  silo. 

Corn  silage.  —  Corn  for  the  silo  should  not  be  cut  too 
green.  The  tendency,  until  quite  recently,  has  been  to  cut 
corn  for  the  silo  while  it  was  still  in  the  milk  stage.  A 
sweeter  silage,  containing  a  higher  percentage  of  nutrients, 
is  obtained  by  cutting  the  corn  when  it  is  just  past  the  milk 
stage  and  the  lower  leaves  of  the  stalk  are  beginning  to  die. 
If  cut  too  ripe,  the  desired  succulence  is  lost.  If,  for  any 
reason,  the  corn  has  passed  the  desired  stage,  the  succulence 
of  the  silage  may  be  improved  b}^  running  a  stream  of  water 


290  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

through  a  hose  into  the  silo  while  it  is  being  filled,  or  by  direct- 
ing the  water  into  the  top  of  the  distributor,  where  it  is 
knocked  into  a  fine  spray  and  mixed  with  the  silage. 

Frosted  or  soft  corn  is  practically  as  valuable  for  silage 
as  sound  corn.  At  the  Iowa  Station  ^  it  was  found  that  the 
husked  ears  from  soft  corn  made  satisfactory  silage  when 
ensiled  without  the  stalk  and  leaves.  Thus  the  silo  offers 
a  solution  to  the  soft  corn  problem. 

According  to  Eckles  at  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station, - 
the  average  jdeld  of  silage  per  acre  when  corn  varies  in 
yield  from  30  to  100  bushels  is  as  follows : 

Yield  of  Corn  Yield  of  Sil.\ge 

Bushels  Tons 

30  6 

40  8 

50  10 

60  12 

80  16 

100  20 

The  tonnage  of  silage  per  given  j'ield  of  corn  varies,  of 
course,  with  the  locahty  and  the  season. 

The  average  chemical  composition  of  corn  silage  is  as 
follows:  water,  73.6  per  cent;  ash,  2.1  per  cent;  crude 
protein,  2.7  per  cent;  crude  fiber,  7.8  per  cent;  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  12.9  per  cent;  and  fat,  0.9  per  cent.  Its  net 
energy  value  is  16.6  therms  per  100  pounds.  In  composi- 
tion and  energy  value  corn  silage  resembles  green  clover 
except  that  the  latter  is  considerably  higher  in  crude  protein. 

It  is  often  said  that  a  part  of  the  feeding  value  of  corn 
fodder  is  lost  through  fermentations  which  take  place  in 
the  silo.     This  is  true  in  part.     A  part  of  the  protein  is 

1  Unpublished  results.  2  BuI.  103. 


SILAGE  291 

changed  to  non-protein.  Furthermore,  some  of  the  starch 
and  sugar  is  changed  to  acetic  acid  (found  in  vinegar), 
lactic  acid  (found  in  sour  milk),  butyric  acid  (found  in  stale 
butter),  and  other  organic  acids,  which,  although  probably 
not  as  high  in  feeding  value  as  the  carbohydrates  from  which 
they  are  formed,  add  materially  to  the  flavor  of  the  silage. 
A  certain  amount  of  energy  is  lost  from  the  ensiled  corn  as 
heat,  liberated  during  fermentation.  These  losses  of  nutri- 
ents, however,  are  certainly  not  as  great  as  the  losses  due 
to  weathering  occurring  in  field-cured  fodder.  The  digest- 
ibility of  the  nutrients  of  corn  silage  and  corn  fodder  are 
about  the  same.  The  increased  consumption  of  roughage 
which  otherwise  is  dry  and  unpalatable  makes  this  the  most 
economical  method  of  handling  the  corn  crop. 

Until  recently,  corn  silage  has  been  used  primarily  as  a 
feed  for  dairy  cattle.  Lately,  however,  it  has  come  into  use 
as  a  feed  for  cattle  and  sheep  of  all  classes  and  is  being  used 
to  some  extent  for  horses  and  mules.  In  feeding  silage  one 
always  should  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  not  a  concentrate,  but 
a  non-nitrogenous  roughage  containing  a  very  large  amount 
of  water,  and,  consequently  should  be  properly  supple- 
mented with  other  feeds. 

For  dairy  cows,  25  to  50  pounds  of  silage  per  day  may 
be  fed,  30  to  40  pounds  being  a  good  average.  It  should  be 
fed  so  as  to  remove  several  inches  from  the  top  of  the  silo 
every  day,  particularly  in  warm  weather,  in  order  to  prevent 
unnecessary  decay  and  waste.  It  should  ])e  fed  only  after 
milking  and  any  that  is  uneaten  should  be  removed,  as  it  is 
Hable  to  impart  a  disagreeable  flavor  and  odor  to  the  milk. 
If  frozen,  it  should  be  allowed  to  thaw  out  before  feeding. 
Moldy  silage  should  not  be  fed.     About  5  to  10  per  cent  more 


292  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING    FARM   ANIMALS 

milk  is  obtained  from  one  pound  of  dry  substance  in  the 
form  of  silage  than  from  the  same  amount  of  dry  substance 
in  corn  fodder.  It  should  be  fed  \\ith  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
and  a  mixture  of  concentrates,  which  should  contain  hnseed 
meal,  cottonseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  or  some  other  nitrogenous 
concentrate. 

For  Beef  Cattle.  —  There  is  no  roughage  which  is  of  more 
importance  to  the  producer  of  beef  cattle  than  silage.  Just 
as  pasture  is  almost  essential  in  summer  for  breeding  cattle, 
so  is  silage  necessary'  in  A\'inter.  In  fact,  experiments 
now  in  progress  at  the  Illinois  Station  seem  to  indicate 
that  silage  may  be  substituted  in  large  part  for  pasture  in 
the  summer.  Corn  silage  with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  will 
bring  the  breeding  herd  through  the  ^\'inter  in  good  shape. 
Oat  straw  or  corn  stover  may  be  used  as  the  dry  roughage, 
if  a  pound  of  hnseed  meal  or  cottonseed  meal  is  added  to  the 
ration. 

For  fattening  cattle,  corn  silage  is  one  of  the  most  eco- 
nomical feeds  if  properly  used.  It  produces  exceptionally 
cheap  gains  in  the  early  part  of  the  feeding  period.  In 
feeding  silage  to  fattening  cattle  they  should  be  fed  as  much 
of  it  as  they  will  consume  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding 
period.  This  should  be  40  to  50  pounds  per  day  per  1000 
poimds  live  weight.  Most  failures  in  feeding  silage  to  fatten- 
ing cattle  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  feeder  started  them 
in  on  a  small  amount  and  gradually  increased  it.  Corn 
silage  may  furnish  all  or  only  part  of  the  roughage  in  the 
ration  of  fattening  steers.  In  either  case,  nitrogenous  con- 
centrates, such  as  Unseed  meal  or  preferably  cottonseed  meal, 
should  be  fed  ^vith  corn  in  addition  to  the  roughage.  Fed 
as  the  sole  roughage,  a  ton  of  silage  is  equal  to  one-half  ton 


SILAGE  293 

of  clover  hay.  Corn  silage,  when  properly  supplemented, 
is  a  more  profitable  roughage  than  clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 
However,  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  dry  roughage, 
such  as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  or  oat  straw,  to  a  ration  of 
silage,  corn,  and  cottonseed  or  linseed  meal  usually  makes 
the  gains  more  economical.  When  fed  Avith  silage,  corn 
should  be  shelled,  as  the  cob  adds  too  much  indigestible 
roughage  to  the  ration. 

For  Sheep.  —  Corn  silage  is  used  by  many  sheepmen  for 
all  classes  of  sheep.  On  the  other  hand,  many  sheepmen 
have  no  use  for  it.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
feed  sour,  moldy,  or  frozen  silage  to  sheep.  Unlike  the  feed- 
ing of  silage  to  cattle,  sheep  should  be  started  in  on  a  small 
quantity  of  silage  (about  one-half  pound)  and  the  amount 
gradually  increased.  Corn  silage  up  to  three  or  four  pounds 
daily  with  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  makes  a  good  winter  ration 
for  the  breeding  ewe  up  until  lambing  •  time,  when  some 
concentrates  should  be  fed.  Up  to  two  or  three  pounds 
daily,  it  may  be  used  profitably  in  the  ration  of  fattening 
lambs  and  sheep.  A  ration  of  corn,  corn  silage,  and  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  is  usually  conducive  to  good  gains.  If  only  a 
small  amount  of  the  legume  hay  is  used,  protein  should  be 
added  in  the  form  of  linseed  meal  or  cottonseed  meal.  Oat 
straw  and  silage  seem  to  make  a  very  good  roughage  for 
fattening  wethers.  It  should  be  noted  that  sheep  are  very 
susceptible  to  spoiled  silage  and  great  care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  feeding  silage  to  sheep  in  warm  weather  when  decom- 
position is  likely  to  take  place. 

Horses.  —  Silage  may  be  successfully  fed  to  horses  if  the 
proper  precautions  are  taken  in  its  use.  It  is  of  utmost 
importance  that  silage  fed  to  horses  should  be  free  from  mold, 


294  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

as  certain  molds  which  grow  on  silage  are  deadly  poison  to 
horses  and  mules.  Thus,  Rusk  and  Grindley,  at  the  Illinois 
Experiment  Station/  killed  an  entire  lot  of  five  horses  in  6 
•to  22  days  by  feeding  moldy  silage.  Corn  which  is  to  be 
used  for  silage  for  horses  should  be  fairly  mature,  as  imma- 
ture corn  causes  a  sour  silage  which  is  apt  to  produce 
colic.  It  is  also  unsafe  to  feed  horses  frozen  silage  on 
account  of  danger  of  coHc.  Horses  should  be  gradually 
accustomed  to  silage,  and  they  should  not  be  fed  too  heav- 
ily on  it. 

The  greatest  value  of  silage  as  a  horse  feed  is  to  carry 
work  horses  during  the  slack  season  through  the  ^\^nter  and 
to  act  as  a  supplement  to  pasture  during  drought.  For 
mntering  horses,  hay  is  the  only  other  feed  which  need  be 
used  in  the  ration,  unless  a  little  hnseed  meal  or  cottonseed 
meal  is  given  for  the  additional  protein  w^hich  it  contains. 
They  should  be  started  on  about  5  pounds  of  silage  daily 
per  1000  pounds  Hve  weight,  the  grain  and  hay  being  grad- 
ually decreased,  and  the  silage  increased  until,  at  the  end 
of  a  month,  the  ration  is  made  up  of  20  pounds  of  silage 
and  10  pounds  of  hay  per  1000  pounds  live  weight.  Corn, 
cottonseed  meal,  hay,  and  silage  is  a  profitable  ration  for 
fattening  draft  horses  for  the  market.  Not  much  silage 
should  be  used  in  the  ration  of  work  horses,  as  it  is  too  suc- 
culent and  too  bulky. 

For  Hogs.  —  Silage  should  not  be  used  in  the  rations  of 
hogs,  as  it  is  too  ])ulky. 

Clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  and  soybeans  may  be  put  in 
the  silo.  They  make  a  fairly  palatable  silage  which  is  high 
in  protein.     They  should  be  cut  at  the  same  time  as  for 

1  Uupubli^hed  result^. 


SILAGE  295 

hay-making,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  pack  them  thor- 
oughly in  the  silo.  However,  it  is  usually  inadvisable  to 
use  these  crops  for  silage  if  they  can  be  made  into  hay. 

Sweet  sorghum,  ferterita,  milo,  kafir  corn  and  the  other 
sorghums  are  extensively  used  for  silage  in  the  West  and 
Southwest  where  the  rainfall  is  insufficient  for  corn.  In 
palatability  and  feeding  value,  they  are  nearly  equal  to 
corn  silage.  Sorghum  should  be  quite  well  matured  before 
it  is  put  in  the  silo  or  it  will  make  a  very  sour  silage,  due  to 
the  large  amount  of  sugar  present. 

Sorghum  bagasse,  the  residue  of  the  cane  mills,  and  the 
leaves  of  the  cane  make  a  fairly  good  silage  and  should  not 
be  wasted. 

Cannery  refuse,  such  as  corn  husks  and  pea  vines,  is 
sometimes  put  in  the  silo.  The  feeding  value  of  such  refuse 
is  usually  quite  low. 

Beet  pulp  sometimes  is  put  in  the  silo.  It  makes  a 
valuable  silage. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
MISCELLANEOUS    ROUGHAGES 

Roots.  —  Under  this  term  are  included  all  plants  whose 
roots,  tubers,  bulbs,  or  other  underground  vegetative  parts 
are  used  for  feed.  Roots  are  very  succulent  in  nature, 
containing  from  85  to  90  per  cent  or  more  of  water.  Al- 
though they  are  usually  classed  with  the  roughages,  they 
have  a  very  high  nutritive  value.  Henry  ^  states,  ''  Roots 
may  be  regarded  as  watered  concentrates  high  in  available 
energy  for  the  dry  matter  which  they  contain  ...  a 
pound  of  dry  matter  in  roots  has  the  same  feeding  value  as 
a  pound  of  corn,  wheat,  barley,  or  oats."  They  may  be 
used  to  advantage  with  practically  all  classes  of  live  stock. 
They  are  highly  relished  and  have  a  peculiarly  beneficial 
effect  upon  the  digestion  and  general  thrift  of  animals.  The 
only  objection  to  their  general  use  is  the  cost  and  difficulty 
of  grooving,  harvesting,  and  storing  them.  Inasmuch  as 
corn  silage  is  quite  similar  in  nature  and  gives  nearly  as  good 
results,  it  usually  can  be  substituted  for  roots  in  general 
farm  feeding,  although  the  latter  are  almost  absolutely 
necessary  in  the  rations  of  show  animals. 

The  most  common  roots  used  for  stock  feeding  in  this 
country  are  mangels  (stock  beets)  and  sugar  beets.  Car- 
rots, rutabagas,  turnips,  potatoes,  Jerusalem  artichokes, 
chufas,  and  cassava  also  are  used  sometimes. 

1  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  14th  ed.,  p.  193. 
296 


MISCELLANEOUS   ROUGHAGES 


297 


Mangels  or  Mangel-wurzels.  —  The  average  chemical  com- 
position of  mangels  is  as  follows :  water,  90.9  per  cent  ; 
ash,  1.1  per  cent;  crude  protein,  1.4  per  cent;  crude  fiber, 
0.9  per  cent;  nitrogen-free  extract,  5.5  per  cent;  and  fat, 
0.2  per  cent.  The  net  energy  value  is  4.6  therms  per  100 
pounds.  Their  actual  feeding  value,  however,  is  much 
greater  than  their  chemical  composition  indicates.  They 
are  especially  valuable  in  keeping  the  digestive  system  in 


Fig.  81.  — Mangels.     (Cornell  Experiment  Station.) 

good  condition.  Their  most  important  use  is  to  promote 
growth  in  young  animals  and  to  stimulate  milk  production. 
If  fed  in  too  large  quantities,  they  are  liable  to  cause  scour- 
ing.    They  are  commonly  sliced  before  feeding. 

Milk  cows  and  beef  cattle  may  be  fed  20  to  30  pounds 
per  day.  Young  calves  may  be  fed  two  or  three  pounds  per 
day,  the  amount  being  increased  as  they  grow  older.  In 
England  as  much  as  100  pounds  per  day  are  fed  cattle  which 
are  being  fattened.  Mangels  are  not  usually  fed  to  horses, 
but  there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  a  few  pounds  daily 


298 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM    ANIMALS 


would  not  be  l)(Mi('fi('ial.  They  may  be  fed  to  brood  sows 
in  large  quantities  in  winter  and  to  fattening  hogs  in  limited 
quantities.  Hogs  may  be  turned  in  on  a  field  of  mangels 
and  allowed  to  harvest  the  crop  if  they  are  fed  grain  in 
addition.  Mangels  may  be  used  for  feeding  sheep.  If  fed 
in  large  quantities  for  extended  periods  of  time,  they  are 

Kable  to  cause  renal  and 
urinary  calculi,  sometimes  re- 
sulting in  the  death  of  the 
animal  so  affected.  Feeding 
them  in  large  quantities  to 
pregnant  ewes  may  result  in 
lambs  ^vith  so-called  ''  water- 
bellies." 

Sugar  Beets.  —  Sugar  beets 
have  a  higher  feehng  value, 
pound  for  pound,  for  fattening 
animals  than  mangels,  as  they 
contain  considerably  more  dry 
matter,  especially  in  the  form 
of  sugar.  On  account  of  the 
increased  cost  of  production, 
however,  it  is  usually  more 
profital)le  for  the  farmer  to  grow  mangels.  For  growing 
animals  and  for  milk  production,  they  are  no  more  valuable 
than  mangels,  although,  owing  to  their  high  sugar  content, 
they  are  usualh'  better  rehshed.  The  cull  beets  of  the  sugar 
factories  are  quit(^  valuabl(\  Sugar  beets  are  sliced  and  fed 
in  the  same  manner  as  mangels. 

Carrots    are    used    especially    for    breeding   horses,  show 
horses,  and  horses  which  are  not  at  hard  work.     They  are 


Fig.  82.  —  Sugar  l)cct.      (Living- 
Kton,  Field  Crop  Production.) 


MISCELLANEOUS   ROUGHAGES 


299 


too  laxative  to  be  fed  in  quantity  to  driving  horses.  They 
may  also  be  used  for  milk  cows  and  other  stock,  but  are 
usually  considered  too  expensive  for  these  purposes. 


Fk;.   s;1  Car 


(Cornell  Experiment  Station.) 


Rutabagas  or  Swedes  are  grown  extensively  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  Canada.  Sheep  prefer  them  to  all  other 
roots.     They  may  be  used  for  all  classes  of  farm  animals. 

Turnips  are  often  grown  as  a  catch  crop.  They  are 
quite  watery  and  are  not  as  satisfactory  for  stockfeeding  as 
some  of  the  other  roots.  They  are  used  mainly  for  sheep, 
but  may  be  fed  to  cattle. 

Potatoes.  —  Undersized  potatoes  are  often  used  for  feed, 
particularly  for  hogs.  They  should  be  cooked  and  fed  with 
dry  concentrates.  The  water  in  which  they  are  cooked 
should  be  discarded  as  it  may  be  poisonous. 

Jerusalem  artichokes  are  sometimes  used  for  stock  feeding, 
especially  for  hogs.     The  crop  is  permitted  to  grow  until 


300 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 


killed  by  frost,  when  hogs  are  turned  in  and  allowed  to  har- 
vest the  tubers  which  the  plant  produces. 

Chufas  are  grown  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  South  and  the 
tubers  harvested  by  hogs. 

Cassava  also  is  grown  somewhat  in  the  extreme  South, 
the  roots  sometimes  being  used  for  stock  feed. 


Fig.  84.  —  Rutabagas.     (Cornell  Experiment  Station.) 


Peat  is  often  sprinkled  or  soaked  in  molasses  and  sold 
under  some  trade  name  at  a  fancy  price.  Much  gross  mis- 
representation is  made  in  advertising  such  feeds,  claiming 
that  they  have  a  very  high  nutritive  value,  that  they  pre- 
vent and  cure  disease,  and  other  unwarranted  statements. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  peat  has  a  nutritive  value  about  half 
that  of  straw.  Finely  ground  peat  is  also  used  sometimes 
as  an  adulterant  of  tankage. 

Alfalfa  meal  is  made  by  grinding  alfalfa  hay.     It  is  often 


MISCELLANEOUS  HOUGHAGES 


301 


sprinkled  with  molasses.  Alfalfa  meal  properly  made  has 
a  very  high  feeding  value,  being  nearly  equal  to  bran. 
However,  a  large  part  of  the  alfalfa  meal  on  the  market  is 
made  from  alfalfa  chaff  or  the  lower  grades  of  alfalfa  hay  so 
that  its  feeding  value  is  usually  lower  than  its  cost.  When 
such  feeds  are  used  the  farmer 
should  either  prepare  them  him- 
self or  make  certain  that  the 
manufacturer  is  using  good  alfalfa 
hay  in  the  manufacture  of  his 
product.  Even  then  he  should 
remember  that  alfalfa  meal  is  no 
higher  in  feeding  value  than  the 
alfalfa  hay  and  molasses  of  which 
it  is  made. 

Rape  is  not  a  grass  but  belongs 
to  the  mustard  family.  It  stores 
its  nutriment  in  the  leaves  and 
stems  somewhat  hke  cabbage.  It 
may  be  sown  at  any  time  from 
early  spring  until  August  and  is 
ready  for  use  in  8  to  12  weeks.    It 

is  a  cool  weather  plant  and  does  Fig.  85.  — Cassava.  (Duggar, 
,,,.,,  ,  .  ,    ,  Southern  Field  Crops.; 

better  m  the  early  spring  or  late 

fall.  If  sown  early  in  the  spring  and  not  pastured  too 
heavily,  it  may  be  pastured  again  in  the  fall.  It  is  used 
extensively  for  soihng. 

Although  cattle  may  be  profitably  pastured  on  rape, 
its  greatest  use  is  for  sheep  and  swine.  Sheep  upon  rape 
pasture  and  receiving  no  grain  make  very  fair  gains.  It 
is  more  valualjle  as  sheep  pasture  than  })luegrass.     Access 


302  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

to  clover  or  bluegrass  pasture  \\\\\  be  beneficial,  however, 
and  ^\\\\  aid  in  preventing  bloat.  As  a  forage  for  hogs, 
rape  ranks  a  little  below  alfalfa  and  red  clover,  but  higher 
than  bluegrass,  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  and  rye.^  It  should  be 
supplemented  by  clover  pasture  and  one-half  to  two-thirds 
full-feed  of  corn,  or  by  corn  and  tankage,  corn  and  linseed 
meal,  or  corn  and  middhngs. 

Oftentimes  white  hogs  if  allowed  to  run  in  wet  rape  will 
develop  bad  sores  on  their  backs  and  sides.     Animals  on 


Fk;.  so.  —  Hogs  in  rape.      (Missouri  Experiment  Station.) 

rape  have  a  craving  for  salt,  which  should  be  supplied  in 
larger  amounts  than  under  ordinarj^  conditions. 

Rape  should  be  used  more  generally  in  the  corn-belt  as  a 
temporary  pasture,  especially  for  pork  production.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  the  non-legume  pasture  and  soiling  crops. 

Cabbage  is  sometimes  used  as  a  roughage  for  sheep, 
especially  for  show  animals.  It  is  used  in  England  for  milch 
cows  to  a  certain  extent. 

1  Ohio  Exp.  Stu.  Bui.  242  ;  Missouri  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  110. 


MISCELLANEOUS   ROUGHAGES 


303 


Kohlrabi  is  a  member  of  the  mustard  family.     It  has  a 
short,  thick  stem.     It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for 


Fig.  87.  —  Kohlrabi.     (Cornell  Experiment  Station.) 

the  root  crops  in  the  Middle  West  as  it  is  more  easily  har- 
vested.    It  also  may  be  pastured. 

Kale  is  another  member  of  the  mustard  family.  It  is 
used  in  England  and  France  as  a  soihng  crop.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  grown  in  New  England  and  along  the 


304  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

north  Pacific  coast.  It  is  fed  as  a  soiling  crop,  particularly 
to  dairy  cows.  It  should  not  be  fed  during  milking  as  it 
may  taint  the  milk. 

Beet  tops  have  considerable  feed  value.  They  should 
be  fed  in  Umited  amounts  with  dry  roughage. 

Pumpkins  are  sometimes  planted  with  the  corn  and  used 
for  stockfeeding.  They  are  usually  fed  to  milk  cows  and 
sometimes  to  hogs.  Their  feeding  value  may  be  compared 
with  that  of  roots. 

Apple  pomace,  remaining  from  the  manufacture  of  cider, 
is  sometimes  used  for  stockfeeding.  It  is  usually  dumped 
in  large  piles  near  the  cider  press.  The  rotten  portion  on  the 
outside  is  removed  and  the  fermented  pomace  used.  A 
dairyman  in  northern  Ohio  informs  the  author  that  he  has 
used  apple  pomace  for  several  years  for  his  milk  cows  with 
satisfactory  results.  He  claims  that  it  is  as  valuable  as 
corn  silage  and  may  be  substituted  for  it  in  the  dairy  ration. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE    EFFICIENCY    OF    RATIONS 

We  have  learned  that  a  maintenance  ration  is  one  which 
is  just  sufficient  to  support  the  vital  functions  of  the  animal 
when  it  is  at  rest,  without  any  loss  or  gain  of  body  tissue. 
If  an  excess  of  feed  above  the  requirements  for  mainten- 
ance is  given  the  animal,  there  may  be  some  production,  i.e. 
the  animal  may  do  work,  or  it  may  produce  milk,  or  meat, 
or  wool,  or  some  other  product  which  has  an  economic 
value.  However,  not  all  the  excess  feed  above  the  main- 
tenance requirement  can  be  recovered  by  the  animal  in  the 
form  of  some  useful  product.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  large 
part  of  it  is  wasted  by  the  animal  in  some  form  or  other. 
It  already  has  been  shown  that  the  horse  can  recover  in 
the  form  of  work  only  about  one-third  of  the  net  energy  of 
the  ration.  Similarly,  meat-producing  and  dairy  animals 
can  recover  only  a  fraction  of  their  ration  in  the  form  of 
meat  or  milk. 

The  efficiency  of  a  ration  is  its  value  expressed  in  terms 
of  the  product  for  which  the  animal  is  fed.  In  other  words, 
the  efficiency  of  a  ration  expresses  the  amount  of  feed  re- 
quired to  produce  a  given  result,  such  as  a  pound  of  gain, 
or  a  pound  of  milk.  The  efficiency  of  the  ration  must  not 
be  confused  with  the  economy  of  the  ration  as  expressed  in 
dollars  and  cents.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  ration  which 
is  most  efficient  is  often  uneconomical,  owing  to  its  high 
X  305 


306  PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDIXd    FARM  ANIMALS 

cost.  Thus  in  practical  feeding  operations,  not  only  the 
efficiency  but  also  the  cost  of  the  rations  must  be  considered. 
In  general,  efficiency  depends  largely  upon  two  general 
classes  of  factors,  one  class  concerning  the  ration  itself,  and 
the  other  class  concerning  the  animal  which  consumes  the 
ration. 

Among  the  factors  relating  to  the  ration  itself  are  the 
following :  the  physical  composition,  chemical  composition, 
digestibility,  amount,  and  preparation  of  the  ration.  The 
principal  factors  concerning  the  animal  are :  the  species, 
type  and  grade,  age,  capacity,  temperament,  and  previous 
treatment  of  the  animal,  the  length  of  the  fattening  period, 
and  the  temperature  and  other  cHmatic  conditions. 

The  physical  composition  of  the  ration,  i.e.  the  nature 
of  the  feedingstuffs  which  make  up  the  ration,  is  a  large 
factor  in  determining  the  efficiency.  It  is  commonly  known 
that  certain  combinations  of  feedingstuffs  are  more  efficient 
for  certain  purposes  than  certain  other  combinations.  For 
example,  a  ration  of  corn  and  clover  hay  is  more  efficient 
for  producing  gains  than  a  ration  of  barley  and  clover  hay, 
although  they  both  contain  practically  the  same  amounts 
of  digestible  protein,  total  nutriment,  and  net  energy.  A 
large  part  of  the  work  of  animal  husbandry  investigators 
has  consisted  of  a  comparison  of  different  rations  in  order 
to  determine  what  combinations  of  feedingstuffs  are  most 
efficient  for  different  purposes.  Obviously,  the  stockfeeder 
always  should  endeavor  to  feed  a  ration  which  will  make 
the  production  as  efficient  and  economical  as  possible. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  ration  determines  its 
efficiency  to  a  large  extent.  A  ration  which  is  deficient  in 
any  of  its  nutrients,  or  a  ration  which  contains  an  excess  of 


THE   EFFICIENCY   OF  RATIONS  307 

any  nutrient  is  not  as  efficient  as  one  which  suppKes  the 
proper  amounts  and  proportions  of  the  nutrients,  i.e.  a 
balanced  ration.  Thus  a  ration  of  corn,  hnseed  meal,  and 
clover  hay  is  more  efficient  for  beef  production  than  one  of 
corn  and  timothy  hay,  largely  because  the  former  ration 
suppHes  more  nearly  the  proper  proportions  of  the  different 
nutrients. 

The  digestibility  of  the  ration  has  a  marked  effect  upon 
its  efficiency.  Obviously  the  more  digestible  the  ration  is, 
the  greater  is  its  efficiency.  Thus  a  ration  consisting  largely 
of  the  more  digestible  concentrates  is  more  efficient  than  one 
consisting  largely  of  the  less  digestible  roughages  as  the  un- 
digested part  of  the  ration  has  no  value  to  the  animal  body. 
Of  course,  the  relative  prices  of  concentrates  and  rough- 
ages also  must  be  considered  in  formulating  the  ration,  as 
this  will  determine  to  a  large  extent  their  proportions  in  the 
ration. 

The  Amount  of  the  Ration.  —  When  one  considers  that 
a  certain  amount  of  feed  is  always  necessary  for  mainte- 
nance, it  would  seem  that  the  larger  the  amount  fed  above 
maintenance  the  more  efficient  would  be  the  gains.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  has  been  stated,  a  full-feed  ration  con- 
taining a  fairly  large  proportion  of  roughage  to  concentrates 
is  not  digested  as  thoroughly  as  a  smaller  ration.  In  an 
experiment  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  ^  by  Mum- 
ford,  Grindley,  Emmett,  and  Bull  with  4  lots  of  four 
2-year-old  steers  each,  all  lots  were  fed  corn  and  clover 
hay  for  22  weeks,  after  which  time  linseed  meal  was 
introduced  into  the  ration.  The  feeding  period  extended 
over  37  weeks.     One  lot  received  as  much  feed  as  they 

^  Unpublished  data. 


308 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


would  cat  rcadil}^ ;  another  was  given  a  little  more  than  a 
maintenance  ration;  another,  an  amount  of  feed  equal  to 
the  maintenance  ration  plus  one-third  of  the  difference 
between  the  maintenance  and  full-feed  rations;  and  an- 
other an  amount  equal  to  the  maintenance  ration  plus  two- 
thirds  of  the  difference  between  the  maintenance  and  full- 
feed  rations.  The  average  daily  gains,  the  amounts  of 
feed  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain,  and  the  amounts  of  dry 
substance  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  were  as  follows : 


Average 
Daily 
Gain 

Feed  per  Pound  of  Gain 

Dry  Sub- 
stance PER 
Pound  of 
Gain 

Lot 

Concen- 
trates 

Hay 

Full  feed      .... 
Two-thirds  feed     .     . 
One- third  feed  .     .     . 
Maintenance     ...     . 

Lb. 
2.13 
1.79 
1.32 
0.70 

Lb. 

8.25 

8.13 

8.22 

10.07 

Lb. 

2.75 
2.63 
2.66 
3.29 

Lb. 

9.63 

9.40 

9.51 

11.61 

The  results  of  this  experiment  indicate  that  a  ration 
slightly  above  maintenance  is  less  efficient  for  producing 
gains  than  larger  rations.  However,  there  was  little  or  no 
difference  in  the  efficiency  of  the  full  feed,  two-thirds  feed, 
and  one-third  feed  rations  for  the  production  of  gains. 

It  is  of  importance  to  note,  however,  that  when  animals 
are  being  fattened  for  the  market,  the  degree  of  finish  also 
must  be  considered.  As  an  animal  possessing  a  high  degree 
of  finish  is  ordinarily  worth  more  per  pound  than  an  animal 
possessing  a  lower  degree  of  finish,  it  usually  will  be  more 
economical  from  the  market  standpoint  to  feed  as  large  a 
ration  as  possible  without  throwing  the  animal  off  feed,  in 
order  to  attain  a  high  degree  of  finish. 


THE  EFFICIENCY  OF  RATIONS  309 

In  feeding  dairy  cows,  the  ration  should  be  as  large  as 
possible  without  causing  digestive  derangements,  if  it  is  all 
used  for  milk  production.  However,  if  part  of  the  ration 
is  used  for  the  storage  of  body  fat  (as  indicated  by  a  con- 
siderable gain  in  weight,  especially  in  the  mature  animal), 
a  smaller  ration  will  prove  more  efficient.     (See  page  144.) 

The  preparation  of  the  ration  often  is  assumed  to  have 
considerable  influence  upon  the  efficiency  of  production. 
We  already  have  seen  that  in  most  cases  grinding,  crushing, 
cooking,  soaking,  fermenting,  and  chaffing  feed  does  not 
materially  increase  its  digestibility  but,  on  the  contrary,  in 
certain  instances  it  decreases  it.  The  preparation  of  the 
feed  has  practically  the  same  effect  upon  the  efficiency  of  a 
ration  as  it  has  upon  its  digestibility. 

Mumford,  at  the  Illinois  Station,^  concluded  that  for 
fattening  steers,  whole  corn  when  fed  with  clover  hay  was 
more  efficient  than  shelled  corn  and  that,  when  hogs  fol- 
lowed the  steers,  shelled  corn  was  as  efficient  as  ground  corn. 
However,  when  feeding  silage  as  a  large  part  of  the  rough- 
age of  the  ration,  it  is  more  efficient  if  the  corn  is  shelled. 
When  cattle  are  not  followed  by  hogs,  it  is  usually  more 
efficient  to  grind  the  corn.  Also  it  is  usually  economical 
to  grind  the  grain  for  heavy  producing  dairy  cows  and  for 
horses  at  very  hard  work.  From  the  results  of  elaborate 
experiments  by  Kennedy  and  Robbins  at  the  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station  ^  upon  the  preparation  of  corn  for  hogs,  it 
was  concluded  that  hogs  weighing  under  200  pounds  made 
the  most  economical  gains  when  their  corn  was  fed  in  the 
form  of  dry  ear  corn,  and  that  hogs  weighing  over  200 
pounds  made  the  most  economical  gains  when  their  corn 

1  Bui.  103.  2  Bui.  106. 


310  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

was  shelled  and  soaked  in  water  12  hours  before  feeding. 
King,^  at  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station,  concluded  that 
with  young  hogs  there  is  practically  no  difference  in  the  re- 
sults obtained  from  ear  corn  and  ground  corn.  However, 
after  the  hogs  reach  a  w^eight  of  about  150  pounds,  ground 
corn  is  sHghtly  more  efficient.  Grinding  usually  increases 
the  efficiency  of  wheat,  barley,  rye,  emmer,  and  oats  for 
beef  cattle,  for  dairy  cattle,  for  hogs,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  oats,  for  horses.  Grain  never  should  be  ground  for 
sheep  except  in  the  case  of  very  young  lambs.  It  is  a  com- 
mon saying  among  sheepmen  that  a  sheep  that  cannot 
grind  its  own  grain  is  not  worth  keeping. 

Cooking  does  not  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  ration 
except  in  the  case  of  potatoes  and  beans  when  fed  to  swine. 
On  the  contrary,  cooking  usually  decreases  the  efficiency  of 
the  ration.     The  same  is  true  of  steaming  the  ration. 

Soaking  corn  may  be  advantageous,  especially  when  it 
becomes  dried  out,  hard,  and  flinty.  All  grain  that  is  diflfi- 
cult  of  mastication  should  be  either  soaked  or  ground. 

Chaffed  (or  finely  cut)  hay  or  straw  may  be  more  efficient 
than  whole  hay  or  straw  under  certain  conditions,  as  for 
horses  at  very  hard  work,  or  for  heavy-producing  milch  cows  ; 
l)ut,  in  general,  the  practice  is  not  recommended.  Also  there 
is  no  advantage  in  shredding  corn  stover,  except  that  it  is 
stored  and  handled  more  easily  and  makes  better  bedding. 

The  species  of  animal  has  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
efficiency  of  the  ration.  Thus  cattle  ordinarily  require 
about  8  pounds  of  concentrates  and  5  pounds  of  roughage 
to  produce  one  pound  of  gain,  sheep  require  about  5  pounds  of 
concentrates   and   5   pounds   of   roughage   to   produce   one 

1  Proceedings  of  the  American  Society  of  Animal  Production  for  1913. 


THE   EFFICIENCY   OF   RATIONS 


311 


pound  of  gain,  while  hogs  require  only  about  5  pounds  of 
concentrates  to  produce  one  pound  of  gain.  Table  25, 
which  is  made  up  from  results  compiled  by  Jordan/  shows 
the  comparative  efficiency  of  different  species  of  farm  ani- 
mals to  convert  their  feed  into  marketable  products  and 
into  edible  dry  substance. 


Table  25. —  Product  from  100  Pounds  of  Digestible 
Organic  Matter 


Animal 


Dairy  cow 
Dairy  cow 
Dairy  cow 
Hog 
Hog 
Fowl 
Fowl 
Fowl 
Sheep 
Sheep 
Steer  . 
Steer  . 


Product 


milk     .     .     . 
cheese  . 
butter  .     .     . 
live  weight    . 
dressed  carcas 


eggs  .  .  . 
five  weight  . 
dressed  carcass 
live  weight  . 
dressed  carcass 
live  weight  . 
dressed  carcass 


Total 
Amount 


Lh. 

139 
15 

6 
30 
25 
20 
20 
16 
14 

7 
13 

8 


Edible  Dry 
Substance 


Lh. 

18 
9 
5 

16 
5 

4 

3 

3 


This  table  shows  that  the  dairy  cow  and  the  hog  give  the 
greatest  returns  per  100  pounds  of  digestible  organic  matter, 
i.e.,  they  utilize  their  rations  most  efficiently  as  far  as  the 
production  of  human  food  is  concerned.  The  fowl  ranks 
next,  with  the  sheep  and  steer  last.  It  is  of  interest  to  note 
that  the  returns,  as  a  rule,  vary  directly  with  the  amount 
of  labor  expended.  Labor  is  a  large  factor  in  the  produc- 
tion of  dairy  products,  while  it  is  reduced  to  a  minimum 

"The  Feeding  of  Animals,"  p.  405. 


312 


PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


in  case  of  fattening  steers.  It  should  be  noted  also  that  the 
hog  and  fowl,  although  quite  efficient  in  the  utilization  of 
their  rations,  cannot  use  large  quantities  of  roughage,  while 
the  sheep  and  steer,  although  less  efficient,  can  utihze  large 
quantities  of  roughage  which,  otherwise,  would  be  wasted 
ordinarily  as  far  as  its  feeding  value  is  concerned.  Further- 
more, hogs  and  poultry  are  quite  susceptible  to  disease, 
while  sheep  are  subject  to  the  ravages  of  dogs. 

The  type  and  grade  of  animals  have  considerable  in- 
fluence upon  the  efficiency  of  the  ration.  One  does  not 
select  cows  of  pronounced  beef  type  for  the  production  of 
dairy  products,  as  they  do  not  convert  their  feed  into  milk 
as  efficiently  as  do  cows  of  the  dairy  type.  On  the  other 
hand,  one  does  not  select  steers  of  dairy  conformation  for 
fattening.  Mumford  at  the  Illinois  Station  ^  compared 
feeder  steers  of  different  types  and  market  grades  with  the 
following  results : 


Grade  of  Steers 

Beep  Produced  per 
Bushel  op  Corn 

Digestible  Dry  Sub- 
stance to  Produce  one 
Pound  of  Gain 

Fancy 

Choice 

Good 

Medium 

Common 

Inferior 

Lb. 

9.74 
7.97 
7.99 
7.45 
8.13 
7.61 

Lb. 

9.95 
12.09 
12.08 
13.05 
12.00 
12.93 

These  results  indicate,  other  things  being  equal,  that  the 
better  grades  of  animals  are  more  efficient  than  the  poorer 
grades. 


»  Bui.  90. 


THE  EFFICIENCY  OF  RATIONS  313 

Armsby  and  Fries  at  the  Pennsylvania  Station  ^  found 
that  a  pure-bred  Angus  steer  utihzed  his  ration  more  efficiently 
than  a  scrub  steer,  primarily  because  the  maintenance  re- 
quirement of  the  pure-bred  steer  was  less,  leaving  more 
energy  available  to  produce  flesh. 

Further,  the  mutton  type  sheep  is  a  more  efficient  pro- 
ducer of  meat  than  the  fine  wool  type.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  latter  is  a  more  efficient  producer  of  wool. 

Fowls  of  the  meat  type  are  more  efficient  producers  of 
meat  than  those  of  the  egg  type,  while  the  latter  are  more 
efficient  producers  of  eggs  than  the  former. 

The  conformation  of  the  horse  and  the  kind  of  work  he 
is  doing  have  an  effect  on  the  efficiency.  Thus,  horses  of 
the  draft  type  are  most  efficient  for  work  of  heavy  draft, 
light  harness  horses  for  work  of  locomotion,  and  saddle 
horses  for  carrying  a  weight. 

The  age  of  the  animal  has  considerable  influence  upon 
the  efficiency  of  gains.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
younger  the  animal,  the  greater  is  the  efficiency.  Older 
animals  usually  make  larger  daily  gains  than  younger  ones, 
but  they  are  not  made  as  efficiently  as  in  the  case  of  the 
younger  animals.  This  is  shown  quite  clearly  in  a  com- 
pilation made  by  Henry  and  Morrison  -  from  over  500  pig 
feeding  trials,  involving  more  than  2200  animals.  A  modi- 
fication of  their  table  is  as  follows  : 

1  Bui.  105.  2  "Feeds  and  P^ceding,"  p.  569. 


314 


PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


Table  26.  —  Relation  of  Weight  of    Uons   to    Efficiency    of 

Gains 


Weight  of  Pigs 

Average  Feed 
PER  Day 

Average  Feed 
PER  100  Lb. 
Live  Weight 

Average  Gain 
PER  Day 

Feed  per  100 
Lb.  Gain 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

15  to    50 

2.2 

6.0 

0.8 

293 

50  to  100 

3.4 

4.3 

0.8 

400 

100  to  150 

4.8 

3.8 

1.1 

437 

150  to  200 

5.9 

3.5 

1.2 

482 

200  to  250 

6.6 

2.9 

1.3 

498 

250  to  300 

7.4 

2.7 

1.5 

511 

300  to  350 

7.5 

2.4 

1.4 

535 

As  shown  by  the  table,  production  became  less  efficient 
as  the  pigs  became  heavier  and,  presumably,  older.  Similar 
results  are  shown  in  a  compilation  of  cattle  feeding  trials 
made  by  the  author.  The  average  of  33  feeding  trials  with 
2-year-old  steers  showed  a  net  energy  consumption  of  9.1 
therms  for  every  pound  of  gain,  while  the  average  of  4  feed- 
ing trials  with  calves  and  yearUngs  showed  a  net  energy 
consumption  of  6.3  therms  for  every  pound  of  gain. 

Armsby  ^  presents  the  following  figures  as  representing 
the  amounts  of  net  energy  above  maintenance  to  produce 
a  pound  of  gain  in  cattle. 


Age  of  Cattle 

Net  Energy 

Months 

Therms 

3 

1.50 

6 

1.75 

12 

2.00 

18 

2.50 

24 

2.75 

30 

3.00 

mature 

3.50 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers'  BuL  346. 


THE  EFFICIENCY  OF  RATIONS  315 

In  another  compilation  by  the  author  of  results  of  experi- 
ments upon  fattening  cattle,  8  lots  of  3-year  old  steers  re- 
quired an  average  of  9.4  pounds  of  digestible  organic  matter 
to  produce  a  pound  of  gain,  56  lots  of  2-year-old  steers  re- 
quired 8.4  pounds  of  digestible  organic  matter,  while  27 
lots  of  calves  and  yearhngs  required  only  6.7  pounds  of 
digestible  organic  matter  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain. 

After  three  years  of  experimentation  with  calves,  year- 
lings, and  two-year-olds  Skinner  and  Cochel,  at  the  Purdue 
Experiment  Station,^  concluded  that  the  rate  of  gain  and 
the  cost  of  gain  increase  with  the  increased  age  of  cattle. 

It  might  be  well  to  note,  however,  that  the  younger  the 
animal  is,  the  more  care  it  will  require,  and  the  longer  the 
time  necessary  to  finish  the  animal.  Also  the  younger 
animal  requires  a  larger  proportion  of  expensive  concen- 
trates in  its  ration  than  does  the  older  animal. 

The  Capacity  of  the  Animal.  —  The  capacity  of  the  ani- 
mal in  most  cases  has  considerable  influence  upon  the  effi- 
ciency. If  the  animal  has  a  small  capacity,  it  can  consume 
only  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  feed  above  the  main- 
tenance requirement  which  is  available  for  production. 
This  makes  the  production  expensive.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  animal  has  a  large  capacity,  considerable  more  feed 
will  be  available  for  production.  To  illustrate  this  point, 
we  will  assume  that  a  steer  requires  12  pounds  of  feed  daily 
for  maintenance,  and  6  pounds  of  feed  above  maintenance 
to  produce  a  pound  of  gain.  If  he  eats  only  18  pounds  of 
feed  and  makes  a  gain  of  one  pound,  it  will  have  taken  18 
pounds  of  feed  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain.  However,  if  he 
consumes  24  pounds  of  feed  and  makes  a  gain  of  2  pounds 

1  Purdue  Bui.  146. 


316  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

per  day,  it  will  have  taken  12  pounds  of  feed  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain ;  while  if  he  consumes  30  pounds  of  feed  and 
makes  a  gain  of  3  pounds,  it  will  have  taken  only  10  pounds 
of  feed  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain.  Thus  the  animal  hav- 
ing the  larger  capacity  can  utilize  the  ration  more  efficiently, 
as  a  larger  proportion  of  the  ration  is  available  for  produc- 
tive purposes.  In  general,  animals  of  small  capacity  are 
expensive  and  inefficient  machines  for  the  transformation 
of  feed  into  meat  or  milk. 

The  temperament  of  the  animal  has  considerable  in- 
fluence upon  the  efficiency  of  the  ration.  Armsby  ^  and 
Fries  have  shown  that  the  maintenance  requirement  of  a 
nervous,  restless  steer  was  17  per  cent  greater  than  the 
maintenance  requirement  of  a  quiet,  phlegmatic  steer  of 
the  same  age  and  weight.  He  found  also  that  the  mere 
act  of  standing  increased  the  maintenance  requirement  20 
per  cent.  Hence,  fattening  stock  and  dairy  cows  should 
receive  no  more  exercise  than  necessary  for  their  general 
health,  and  pains  should  be  taken  to  remove  all  causes  of 
excitement  from  them,  such  as  females  in  heat,  vicious  dogs, 
etc.  They  should  be  well  bedded  in  order  to  induce  them 
to  lie  down  as  much  as  possible.  It  is  important  from  an 
economic  as  well  as  from  a  humanitarian  standpoint  that 
one  should  treat  the  farm  animals  with  kindness. 

The  previous  treatment  of  the  animal  may  have  con- 
siderable influence  upon  the  efficiency.  It  is  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge  among  stockmen  that  a  steer  which  is 
maintained  through  the  winter  on  roughage  alone  will 
make  more  efficient  gains  in  the  spring  when  put  on  pasture 
than  a  steer  which  is  given  a  more  liberal  ration  through  the 

1  Penn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  105. 


THE  EFFICIENCY  OF  RATIONS  317 

winter.  However,  in  case  of  the  young  growing  animal, 
growth  may  be  so  checked  that  the  animal  will  never  attain 
the  l)i()a(l,  deep  form  of  the  typical  meat  animal,  but  will 
be  tall,  narrow,  and  upstanding.  It  is  also  common  knowl- 
edge among  feeders  that  range  cattle,  because  of  not  being 
previously  accustomed  to  grain,  are  not  as  efficient  meat 
producers  in  the  feed  lot  as  native  cattle  which  have  been 
accustomed  to  grain. 

Dietrich  ^  presents  results  of  experiments  with  pigs  which 
indicate  that  the  maintenance  requirement  may  be  lowered 
by  fasting  the  animal  or  b}^  feeding  only  a  small  ration. 
He  claims  that  the  animal  makes  more  efficient  gains  after 
such  treatment. 

In  an  experiment  at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  ^  by 
Mumford,  Grindley,  Hall,  Emmett,  Bull,  and  Alhson  with 
steers,  it  was  found  that  steers  which  had  been  on  a  main- 
tenance ration  for  some  time  made  more  efficient  gains 
when  put  on  full  feed  than  steers  which  had  been  on  a  full- 
feed  ration. 

Length  of  the  Fattening  Period.  —  Other  conditions 
being  equal,  the  longer  the  fattening  period,  the  larger  is 
the  amount  of  feed  required  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain. 
As  only  the  excess  of  feed  above  the  maintenance  require- 
ment can  be  used  for  production,  it  is  apparent  that  the 
longer  the  fattening  period,  the  greater  the  amount  of  feed 
used  by  the  animal  for  maintenance  and,  consequently,  the 
less  the  amount  of  feed  available  to  produce  gains.  For 
example,  if  a  steer  requiring  12  pounds  of  feed  daily  for 
maintenance  can  be  fattened  satisfactorily  in  90  days,  it 
will  take  less  feed  than  if  168  days  are  taken  to  fatten  him, 

»  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  163.  «  Unpublished  data. 


318  PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM   ANIMALS 

because  in  the  shorter  feeding  period  the  feeder  will  save 
the  feed  required  to  maintain  the  steer  for  78  days,  i.e.,  936 
pounds  of  feed. 

The  Kansas  Experiment  Station  ^  found  the  grain  re- 
quired for  100  pounds  of  gain  in  the  ease  of  fattening  steers 
was  as  follows : 


(Jrain  for  100 
Pounds  Gain 

Lb. 

Up  to    56  days 730 

Up  to    84  days 807 

Up  to  112  days 840 

Up  to  140  days 901 

Up  to  168  days 927 

Up  to  182  days 1000 


The  length  of  the  fattening  period  usually  will  depend  to 
a  large  extent  upon  four  factors  :  (1)  the  feedingstuffs  avail- 
able, (2)  the  age  of  the  animal,  (3)  the  grade  of  the  animal, 
and  (4)  the  condition  of  the  animal. 

When  it  is  desired  to  feed  a  large  proportion  of  roughage 
to  concentrates,  the  fattening  process  is  slow  and  a  longer 
time  is  required  to  finish  the  animal  than  when  a  highly 
concentrated  ration  is  fed.  The  relative  cost  of  concen- 
trates and  roughage  should  be  considered  in  this  connection. 
Younger  animals  usually  require  a  longer  time  to  finish 
than  do  more  mature  ones.  Low  grade  feeders  finish  more 
quickly  than  do  those  of  high  grade  at  the  same  weight  and 
in  the  same  condition,  because  they  usually  are  older.  They 
can  never  reach  a  high  degree  of  finish,  however.  Animals 
in  good  condition  ordinarily  require  less  time  to  finish  than 
those  in  poor  condition. 

>  Bui.  34. 


THE   EFFICIENCY   OF   RATIONS  319 

Temperature  and  Climatic  Conditions.  —  Climatic  con- 
ditions may  have  considerable  influence  upon  the  efficiency 
with  which  an  animal  utilizes  its  ration.  It  has  been  stated 
that  in  ordinary  winter  weather  horses,  hogs,  and  perhaps 
dairy  cattle,  unless  properly  sheltered,  must  oxidize  a  part 
of  their  ration  to  keep  the  body  warm.  In  extremely  cold 
weather,  or  in  damp,  windy,  cold  weather,  or  when  given 
large  amounts  of  very  cold  water  to  drink,  cattle  and  sheep 
must  do  the  same.  Thus,  the  amount  of  the  ration  avail- 
able for  production  is  lessened  and  the  ration  is  less  efficient 
for  productive  purposes,  i.e.,  it  requires  more  feed  to  pro- 
duce the  same  result.  Also  in  very  hot  weather,  especially 
if  flies  are  bad,  the  animal  becomes  less  efficient  and  the 
amount  of  production  from  a  given  amount  of  feed  is 
decreased. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  FERTILIZING  VALUES  OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS 

In  addition  to  the  direct  products  of  feeding,  such  as  meat 
or  milk,  the  feeder  also  has  the  manure  as  a  more  or  less 
valuable  by-product.  It  is  not  onh'  of  interest  but  also  of 
practical  value  to  know  the  fertilizing  value  of  manure  from 
the  various  feedingstuffs,  and  the  factors  which  may  affect 
its  value. 

Ordinarily  four  mineral  elements  must  be  suppUed  or 
made  available  to  conserve  the  fertihty  of  the  soil;  viz., 
nitrogen,  potassium,  phosphorus,  and  calcium,  all  of  which 
are  contained  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  excreta  of  our  farm 
animals.  However,  inasmuch  as  the  amount  of  calcium 
in  manure  is  small,  only  the  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phos- 
phorus w\\\  be  considered  in  this  connection.  In  addition  to 
the  mineral  elements,  a  certain  amount  of  organic  matter 
must  be  present  in  the  soil  to  assist  in  making  some  of  the 
mineral  elements  available  and  to  improve  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil. 

The  principal  source  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  of  the 
excreta  is,  of  course,  the  feed  of  the  animal.  It  has  already 
been  shown  that  the  animal  does  not  chgest  all  the  ration, 
any  undigested  material  passing  off  in  the  feces.  It  also 
was  stated  that,  if  a  surplus  of  protein  is  fed  above  the  de- 
mands of  the  body  for  repair,  growth,  and  milk  production, 
the  excess  is  used  for  energy  or  fat  production.     In  either 

320 


THE  FERTILIZING    VALUES    OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS      321 

case  the  nitrogen  of  the  protein  molecule  is  split  off  and  ex- 
creted through  the  urine.  Also  small  amounts  of  mineral 
matter,  including  potassium  and  phosphorus,  are  excreted 
in  the  urine,  while  larger  amounts  are  excreted  in  the  feces. 
In  other  words,  all  the  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus 
of  the  ration  which  is  not  permanently  stored  in  the  body 
(or  used  for  milk  production)  is  ultimately  excreted  and  may 
be  returned  to  the  soil  for  fertilizer.  Also,  all  the  undigested 
organic  matter  of  the  feces  may  be  returned  to  the  soil  to 
supply  the  humus. 

The  amount  of  manure,  both  Hquid  and  sohd,  is  quite 
variable  for  the  different  farm  animals  under  different  con- 
ditions. According  to  Van  Slyke  ^  the  amounts  of  manure 
produced  for  1000  pounds  of  live  weight  by  the  different 
farm  animals  in  one  year  are  as  follows : 


Animal 

Dung 

Urine 

Total 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Horse  .... 

14,400 

3,000 

18,000 

Cow     .... 

19,000 

8,000 

27,000 

Hog     ...     . 

18,300 

12,200 

30,500 

Sheep  .... 

8,300 

4,200 

12,500 

Hen     ...     . 

8,500 

8,500 

Of  primary  importance  in  this  connection  is  a  knowledge 
of  the  proportion  of  each  fertilizing  constituent  of  the  feed 
which  may  be  recovered  in  the  manure.  At  the  Ilhnois 
Experiment  Station,^  Mumford,  Grindley,  Emmett,  and  Bull 
fed  eight  two-year-old  steers  for  a  period  of  37  weeks.  The 
consumption    and    excretion    of    nitrogen    and    phosphorus 


Fertilizers  and  Crops,"  p.  294. 


Unpublished  data. 


322 


PRINCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 


were  determined  throughout  the  entire  experiment.  The 
ration  and  the  average  percentages  of  the  total  nitrogen 
and  phosphorus  contained  in  the  ration  which  were  excreted 
in  the  manure  (feces  and  urine)  were  as  follows : 


Week 


1-    5 

8-13 
17-22 
25-37 

1-37 


Ration 


Clover  hay,  1  part;  corn,  1  part 
Clover  hay,  1  part ;  corn,  3  parts , 
CUover  hay,  1  part ;  corn,  5  parts , 
Clover  hay,  1  part ;  corn,  4  parts 

linseed  meal,  1  part  .     . 
Average 


Percent  N.  Pehcent  P. 
Excreted   Excreted 


81.7 

92.1 

80.0 

9.5.8 

80.7 

84.9 

90.4 

80.7 

87.4      • 

86.1 

During  a  digestion  experiment  at  the  IlHnois  Experiment 
Station  1  with  six  milch  cows  for  15  days,  all  of  the  nitrogen 
of  the  ration  was  excreted,  80  per  cent  being  in  the  dung 
and  urine  and  20  per  cent  in  the  milk.  Of  the  phosphorus 
consumed,  about  73  per  cent  was  excreted  in  the  feces  and 
urine,  and  22  per  cent  in  the  milk.  Of  the  potassium, 
76  per  cent  was  excreted  in  the  feces  and  urine,  and  14  per 
cent  in  the  milk. 

The  Pennsylvania  Station  ^  ran  a  digestion  experiment  on 
two  milk  cows  for  50  days.  Eighty-five  per  cent  of  the 
nitrogen  of  the  ration,  71  per  cent  of  the  phosphorus,  and 
91  per  cent  of  the  potassium  were  recovered  in  the  manure. 

In  experiments  by  Grindley  and  associates  with  pigs  at 
the  Illinois  Station  ^  it  was  found  that  about  90  per  cent  of 
the  nitrogen  of  the  ration  is  returned  in  the  feces  and  urine. 

1  Unpublished  data. 

2  Animal  Report,  1899   19U0. 

3  Ihipublished  data. 


THE  FERTILIZING    VALUES    OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS      323 

Laws  and  Gilbert  at  Rothamsted  ^  obtained  tlie  following 
results : 


Animal 

Per  cent  of  ash 
Constituents  of 
Feed  in  Manure 

Per  cent  of 

Nitrogen  of  Feed 

IN  Manure 

Horse  at  rest 

Horse  at  work 

Fat  steer  (mature) 

Fat  sheep  (mature)      .... 

Fat  pig 

Milch  cow 

Calf 

100 
100 
98 
96 
96 
90 
46 

100 
100 
96 
96 
85 
75 
31 

Although  these  results  are  not  conclusive  by  any  means, 
yet  it  seems  safe  to  assume  that  with  fairly  mature  fattening 
or  work  animals  about  90  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen,  75  per 
cent  of  the  phosphorus,  and  90  per  cent  of  the  potassium 
may  be  recovered  in  the  manure.  In  case  of  milch  cows  not 
so  much  is  recovered  in  the  manure  because  some  is  excreted 
in  the  milk. 

The  proportion  of  the  organic  matter  of  the  ration  which 
is  recovered  in  the  manure  depends,  of  course,  upon  the 
amount  of  the  organic  matter  digested.  Thus  feeds  which 
are  quite  digestible  will  produce  a  manure  low  in  organic 
matter,  while  feeds  which  are  less  digestible  will  produce 
more  organic  matter  in  the  manure.  Ordinarily  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  organic  matter  of  the  ration  is  recovered  in  the 
manure.  In  experiments  with  steers  by  Mumford,  Grindley, 
Emmett,  and  Bull  at  the  Illinois  Station,^  26.6  per  cent  of 
the  organic  matter  of  the  feed  was  recovered  in  the  manure. 

1  Warington,  "  Chemistry  of  the  Farm,"  p.  214. 

2  Unpublished  data. 


324  PRINCIPLES    OF   FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Factors  Affecting  the  Value  of  the  Manure.  —  There  are 
various  factors  affecting  the  value  of  the  manure,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  the  feeds  in  the 
ration,  the  age  of  the  animal,  the  species  of  animal,  loss 
of  the  liquid  manure,  and  losses  by  leaching  and  fermenta- 
tion. 

Feeds  in  the  Ration.  —  Of  course  the  more  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, and  potassium  there  are  in  the  ration  the  more  there 
will  be  in  the  excreta  and,  consequently,  the  more  valuable 
is  the  manure.  Thus  manure  from  a  ration  of  corn  and 
timothy  hay  is  not  nearly  as  valuable  as  manure  from  a 
ration  of  corn,  cottonseed  meal,  and  alfalfa  hay.  In  general, 
the  use  of  feeds  high  in  nitrogen  and  mineral  matter  greatly 
increases  the  value  of  the  manure. 

The  age  of  the  animal  has  an  effect  upon  the  value  of  the 
manure.  The  young  animal  will  store  considerable  of  the 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  of  its  ration  in  the 
form  of  new  tissue  or  growth,  while  the  mature  animal 
excretes  all  that  is  not  used  for  maintenance.  Also  the 
manure  from  a  milch  cow  is  less  valuable  than  the  manure 
from  a  beef  animal  on  the  same  ration  because  the  milch 
cow  excretes  a  part  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and 
potassium  in  her  milk,  while  the  beef  animal  excretes  all 
above  the  requirements  for  maintenance  and  growth  in  the 
manure. 

The  species  of  animal  has  considerable  effect  upon  the 
value  of  the  manure.  According  to  Van  Slyke  ^  the  manure 
of  the  different  farm  animals  contains  the  following  per- 
centages of  nitrogen,  i^hosphorus,  and  potassium  : 

1  "  Fertilizers  and  Crops,"  p.  291. 


THE   FERTILIZING    VALUES   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS     325 


Animal 

Water 

Nitrogen 

Phosphorus 

Potassium 

Horse 

Cow 

Pig 

Sheep 

Per  cent 

78 
86 
87 
68 

Per  cent 

0.70 
0.60 
0.50 
0.95 

Per  cent 

0.11 
0.07 
0.15 
0.15 

Per  cent 

0.45 
0.37 
0.33 
0.83 

Thus  sheep  manure  is  the  most  valuable.  Horse  manure  ranks 
second,  while  cow  manure  ranks  third,  and  pig  manure  last. 

Loss  of  Liquid  Manure.  —  If  the  liquid  manure  or  urine 
is  not  saved,  the  manure  loses  a  large  part  of  its  fertilizing 
value.  In  case  of  the  Illinois  experiment  with  eight  steers 
already  mentioned,  49  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  excreted 
was  in  the  urine,  and  51  per  cent  in  the  feces.  Practically 
all  of  the  phosphorus  was  excreted  in  the  dung.  In  the 
Illinois  and  Pennsylvania  experiments  with  milch  cows  al- 
ready noted,  about  one-third  of  the  nitrogen  consumed  was 
excreted  in  the  dung  and  one-half  in  the  urine.  Most  of 
the  phosphorus  was  excreted  in  the  dung,  and  a  larger  part 
of  the  potassium  was  excreted  in  the  urine. 

Van  Slyke  ^  presents  the  following  table  showing  the  rela- 
tive amounts  of  plant-food  constituents  in  the  dung  and  urine  : 


Total  Nitrogen 

Total  Phosphorus 

Total  Potassium 

Excreted 

Excreted 

Excreted 

In  Dung 

In  Urine 

In  Dune 

In  Urine 

In  Dung 

In  Urine 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Horse  .... 

62 

38 

100 

0 

56 

44 

Cow     .... 

49 

51 

100 

0 

15 

85 

Pig       .... 

67 

33 

88 

12 

57 

43 

Sheep       .     .     . 

52 

48 

95 

5 

30 

70 

"  Fertilizers  and  Crops,"  p.  296. 


326  PRIXCIPLES    OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Thus,  unless  the  urine  is  retained  either  in  ii  cistern,  by  a 
concrete  floor  with  curbing,  by  plenty  of  bedding,  or  unless 
the  animal  is  on  pasture,  about  half  of  the  fertilizing  value 
of  the  manure  is  lost. 

Losses  by  Leaching  and  Fermentation.  —  The  loss  of  the 
more  soluble  fertilizing  constituents  by  leaching  and  fer- 
mentation is  important.  The  amount  washed  out  by  rains 
may  be  considerable,  especially  if  the  barnyard  is  not  paved 
or  if  it  is  located  on  the  side  of  a  hill.  Experiments  at  the 
Cornell  Experiment  Station  found  that  horse  manure  exposed 
to  the  weather  from  four  to  six  months  lost  40  to  60  per  cent 
of  its  value  due  to  leaching  and  fermenting.  At  the  Ohio 
Station  it  was  found  that  after  exposure  to  the  weather  for 
three  months  steer  manure  had  lost  28  per  cent  of  its  nitrogen, 
14  per  cent  of  its  phosphorus,  and  58  per  cent  of  its  potassium. 
In  this  connection  Van  Slyke,^  makes  the  following  statement  : 
"  Taking  into  consideration  both  the  amount  and  avail- 
abiUty  of  the  plant-food  leached  from  stable  manure,  it  is  not 
an  exaggeration  to  say  that  two-thirds  of  the  plant  food 
value  is  leached  from  much  of  the  stable  manure  used  on 
American  farms." 

In  addition  to  losses  by  leaching,  much  nitrogen  may  be 
lost  from  stored  manure  in  the  form  of  ammonia  or  free 
nitrogen,  due  to  fermentation  and  decomposition.  These 
losses  are  especially  large  if  the  manure  is  dry  and  loose. 
Thus  horse  and  sheep  manures  are  more  liable  to  losses  by 
fermentation  than  cow  and  pig  manures,  as  the  latter  manures 
are  moister  and  more  compact  than  the  former.  In  storing 
manure  the  farmer  can  obviate  much  of  the  loss  due  to  fer- 
mentation by  keeping  the  manure  moist  and  compact.     Even 

1  "Fertilizers  and  Crops,"  p.  306. 


THE  FERTILIZING    VALVES   OF  FEEDIXGSTUFFS     327 

tlien  probably  about  15  or  20  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  will 
be  lost.  However,  if  no  precautions  are  taken,  fully  50 
per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  may  be  lost  by  fermentation. 

Thus  in  order  to  get  the  most  value  from  the  manure,  it 
should  be  hauled  to  the  field  and  spread  as  soon  as  possible 
after  it  is  produced,  or  it  should  be  allowed  to  accumulate 
in  the  stalls  or  in  covered  sheds  in  compact  and  moist  con- 
dition, sufficient  bedding  being  used  to  keep  the  animals 
clean,  and  then  hauled  to  the  fields  at  convenient  intervals. 
In  no  case  should  it  be  allowed  to  heat  and  ferment  before 
being  spread  if  its  full  value  is  to  be  secured.  In  live-stock 
farming  the  rotation  should  be  so  planned  that  there  is  always 
a  place  to  haul  and  spread  manure  as  soon  as  possible  after 
it  is  produced. 

The  Commercial  Values  of  Feeds  as  Fertilizers.  —  Most 
of  us  do  not  think  of  our  ordinary  feedingstuffs  as  having 
a  commercial  value  as  fertilizers.  However,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  lower  grades  of  tankage  are  often  applied  directly 
to  the  land  as  a  fertiUzer,  while  in  the  South  cottonseed  meal 
is  often  used  as  a  fertiUzer.  Ordinarily  the  stock-farmer  of 
the  corn-belt  does  not  apply  the  feeds  directly  to  the  soil 
but  he  first  obtains  their  feeding  value  b}^  feeding  them  to 
his  animals  and  then  applies  the  manure  to  the  soil,  thus 
obtaining  both  their  nutritive  value  and  from  80  to  90  per 
cent  of  their  fertiUzing  value.  Inasmuch  as  all  feeding- 
stuffs  have  a  certain  fertilizing  value,  it  is  of  interest  and 
value  to  know  just  what  some  of  the  common  feeds  are  worth 
as  fertilizers  after  their  value  as  feed  has  been  obtained  by 
the  animal.  We  have  seen  that  about  90  per  cent  of  the 
nitrogen,  90  per  cent  of  the  potassium,  and  75  per  cent  of  the 
phosphorus  of  the  ration  is  recovered  in  the  manure.     Know- 


328  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

ing  the  amounts  of  these  elements  in  the  feeds,  one  may 
multiply  them  by  the  per  cent  of  each  recovered  in  the 
manure  and  obtain  the  amount  of  fertilizing  constituents. 
Then  multiplying  the  amount  of  each  by  the  market  price 
of  that  constituent  and  adding  all  together  gives  the  fer- 
tilizing value  of  the  feed  when  fed  to  farm  animals.  This, 
of  course,  does  not  take  into  consideration  the  value  of  the 
organic  matter  of  the  manure  as  a  source  of  humus  in  the 
soil.  Assuming  nitrogen  as  worth  15  cents  per  pound,  phos- 
phorus, 10  cents  per  pound,  and  potassium,  6  cents  per  pound, 
which  is  about  what  one  generally  has  to  pay  for  these  con- 
stituents in  commercial  fertihzers,  the  ordinary  feedingstuffs, 
after  passing  through  the  animals,  have  the  following  values 
as  fertilizers : 


Table  27. — Value  of  Fertilizing  Elements  in  Manure  from 
Feedingstuffs 


Corn   .... 
Oats    .... 
Wheat     .     .     . 
Soybeans      .     . 
Tankage .     .     . 
Linseed  meal    . 
Cottonseed  raeal 
Wheat  bran 
Wheat  middlings 
Clover  hay  .     . 
Alfalfa  hay  .     . 
Timothy  hay    . 
Oat  straw     .     . 
Corn  stover 


Valur  per 

Value  per 

100  Lb. 

Bu. 

$0.26 

SO.ir, 

0.28 

0.09 

0.33 

— 

0.80 

0.48 

1.55 

— 

0.74 

— 

1.01 

— 

0.50 

— 

0.49 

— 

0.40 

— 

0.42 

— 

0.11 

— 

0.16 

— 

0.14 

1 

Value  per 
Ton 


$9.80 

31.00 

14.80 

20.20 

10.00 

9.80 

8.00 

8.40 

2.20 

3.20 

2.80 


THE  FERTILIZING    VALUES   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS     329 

In  buying  or  selling  feeds  the  fertilizing  values  should  be 
considered.  Thus  if  one  buys  a  ton  of  cottonseed  meal  for 
$35.00,  in  reahty  the  feed  costs  him  only  $14.80,  because  the 
manure  from  it  has  a  value  of  $20.20.  The  man  who  pays 
$2.00  per  ton  to  have  oat  straw  baled,  sells  it  for  $4.00  per 
ton,  and  hauls  it  to  the  market,  loses  the  feeding  value  of 
the  straw,  the  time  and  labor  of  hauling,  and  $1.20  in  cash, 
because  it  will  cost  him  $3.20  to  buy  commercial  fertilizers 
to  replace  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  manure  which  the  straw 
would  make  if  fed  on  the  farm.  Thus,  in  selling  feeds,  one 
should  consider  how  much  it  will  cost  to  restore  the  fertility 
removed  from  the  farm  by  the  crop  sold. 

In  general,  instead  of  selling  off  a  large  part  of  the  grain  and 
roughage  from  the  farm  and  buying  "  complete  "  commercial 
fertilizers  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  land,  it  will  be  better 
to  follow  a  good  system  of  crop  rotation  and  feed  the  crops 
on  the  farm,  thus  retaining  a  large  amount  of  their  fertility. 
If  nitrogenous  concentrates  are  purchased  and  fed  on  the 
farm  and  the  manure  carefully  conserved,  it  is  probable 
that  the  feeder  will  return  to  the  land  more  fertility  than  he 
removes  in  his  crops,  and  the  expenditure  for  commercial 
fertihzers  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 


CHAPTER   XXII 
THE    VALUATION    OF    FEEDINGSTUFFS 

Having  seen  that  most  feeders  of  the  corn-belt  must  buy 
nitrogenous  concentrates  in  order  to  properly  balance  their 
rations,  the  question  arises,  what  feed  or  feeds  should  he 
buy?  This  will  depend  upon  the  effect  the  feed  will  have 
upon  the  animal  and  its  products,  upon  the  cost  of  the  feed, 
and  upon  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  manure  resulting  from 
the  feed.  The  nutritive  values  of  the  different  feeds  have 
ah'eady  been  discussed.  So  having  decided  upon  a  number 
of  feeds  which  will  be  satisfactory  for  the  purpose  desired, 
the  feeder  must  select  the  ones  which  will  prove  the  most 
economical.  This  of  course  will  depend  upon  the  relative 
prices  of  the  feeds. 

There  are  no  standard  prices  for  the  digestible  protein, 
carbohydrates,  and  fats  of  feedingstuffs,  so  one  cannot  cal- 
culate their  relative  values  from  their  chemical  composition 
as  in  the  case  of  commercial  fertilizers.  In  fact  no  entirely 
satisfactory  method  of  comparing  the  relative  economy  of 
different  feedingstuffs  has  yet  been  devised.  In  general, 
one  should  compare  concentrates  with  concentrates,  or 
roughages  with  roughages,  upon  their  content  of  digestible 
protein  and  their  content  of  digestible  nutriment,  i.e.  diges- 
tible protein,  plus  digestible  carbohydrates,  plus  digestible 
fat  multiplied  by  two  and  one-quarter. 

For  example,  it  is  desired  to  know  whether  cottonseed 
meal  at  $30.00  per  ton  is  more  economical  than  linseed  meal 

330 


THE    VALUATION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS 


331 


$35.00  per  ton.  Calculating  the  digestible  protein  and  total 
nutriment  in  100  pounds  of  each  feed,  and  the  cost  of  100 
pounds  of  feed,  we  get  the  following : 


Digestible 
Protein 

Total 
Nutriment 

Cost 

100  lb.  cottonseed  meal     .     .     . 
100  lb.  linseed  meal      .... 

Lh. 
37.6 
30.2 

Lb. 
80.6 

77.7 

$1.50 

$1.75 

Therefore, 

Digestible 
Protein 

Total 
Nutriment 

$1.00  worth  cottonseed  meal  contains      .     . 
$1.00  worth  hnseed  meal  contains       .     .     . 

Lh. 

25.1 
17.3 

Lh. 

53.7 
44.4 

Thus  the  cottonseed  meal  at  these  prices  furnishes  more 
protein  and  more  total  nutriment  per  dollar  invested  than 
linseed  meal. 

Although  this  method  of  comparison  will  give  good  re- 
sults for  many  comparisons  of  the  concentrates  which  are 
similar  to  each  other,  yet  when  one  compares  dissimilar 
concentrates,  complications  often  arise.  For  example, 
assuming  that  tankage  cost  $50.00  per  ton  and  middhngs 
$30.00  per  ton,  we  have  the  following  comparison : 


100  lb.  tankage 
100  lb.  middling 


Digestible 
Protein 


Lh. 

50.1 
16.9 


Total 
Nutriment 


Lh. 
76.2 

79.7 


Cost 


$2.50 
$1.50 


332  PRINCIPLES   OF  FEFA)ING   FARM  ANIMALS 

Therefore, 


$1.00  worth  tankage  contains     . 
$1.00  worth  middlings  contains 


dujestiblk 
Photein 


Lb. 

20.0 
11.3 


Total 
Nutriment 


Lb. 

31.9 
53.1 


From  this  calculation  one  could  not  determine  which  feed 
is  the  more  economical. 

In  such  instances,  it  will  be  necessary  to  calculate  the 
cost  of  the  ration  when  one  of  the  feeds  is  used  and  compare 
it  with  the  cost  of  the  ration  when  the  other  feed  is  used. 
It  also  will  be  necessary  to  know  the  prices  of  the  other 
feeds  used  in  the  ration.  Returning  to  the  example,  we  will 
assume  that  ear  corn  is  worth  50  cents  per  bushel,  and  that  the 
feeder  wishes  to  feed  100-pound  fattening  shotes.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standard,  a  ration  consisting  of 
2  pounds  of  shelled  corn  and  2  pounds  of  middlings  will 
fulfill  the  requirements  of  a  100-pound  pig.  This  ration  will 
cost  at  the  assumed  prices  for  corn  and  middlings,  4.8  cents 
per  day.  Also  a  ration  consisting  of  3  J  pounds  of  corn  and 
J  pound  of  tankage  will  satisfactorily  fulfill  the  requirements. 
The  cost  of  this  ration  is  4.4  cents  per  day.  Thus,  at  these 
prices,  the  tankage  is  slightly  more  economical  than  the 
middhngs.  In  this  particular  instance  it  probably  would 
pay  to  buy  both  feeds  for  the  sake  of  the  variety. 

In  comparing  a  concentrate  with  a  roughage,  it  is  better 
to  compare  them  on  a  basis  of  their  content  of  digestible 
protein  and  net  energy  rather  than  on  their  content  of  diges- 
tible protein  and  total  nutriment.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  net  energy  values  do  not  include  the  energy  ex- 


THE    VALUATION   OF  FEEDINGSTUFFS  333 

pended  in  digestion,  and  thus  are  more  accurate  in  compar- 
ing feeds  differing  greatly  in  the  amount  of  energy  expended 
in  their  digestion.  For  example,  100  pounds  of  corn  and  100 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  contain  84.3  and  53.0  pounds  of  total 
nutriment  respectively.  In  other  words,  alfalfa  hay  con- 
tains nearly  two-thirds  as  much  total  nutriment  as  the  same 
amount  of  corn.  However,  100  pounds  of  corn  contain 
88.8  therms  of  net  energy,  while  the  same  amount  of  alfalfa 
hay  contains  34.4  therms,  or  only  about  one-third  as  much 
as  the  corn.  The  difference,  as  previously  stated,  is  due  to 
the  larger  amount  of  energy  expended  in  digestion  of  the  hay. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  comparisons  between 
concentrates  and  roughages  may  not  always  be  as  accurate 
by  any  means  as  when  one  compares  similar  feeds.  How- 
ever, by  using  his  practical  knowledge  and  common  sense 
the  feeder  can  usually  determine  the  most  economical  com- 
binations of  feed  to  use. 

In  general,  whenever  there  is  doubt  as  to  which  feed  is 
most  economical,  the  stock-feeder  should  calculate  the  cost 
of  several  rations,  using  his  home-grown  feeds  as  their 
basis  and  trying  the  effect  of  different  supplements  upon  the 
cost  of  the  rations.  However,  it  is  not  exactly  fair  to  use 
the  current  market  prices  as  the  values  of  the  farm-grown 
feeds,  unless  it  costs  nothing  in  time  and  labor  to  market 
them.  One  should  deduct  from  their  value  at  the  market 
a  reasonable  allowance  for  hauling  them  to  market.  On 
the  other  hand,  one  also  should  make  some  allowance  for 
the  time  and  labor  expended  in  hauling  purchased  feed  to 
the  feed  lots. 


APPENDIX 


Table  28.     Average  Composition  of  Feedingstuffs 


Carbohydrates 

Feedingstuff 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
Protein 

Fat 

Crude 

N-free 

Fiber 

Extract 

Grains  and  Seeds 

Cereals 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Dent  corn     .... 

10.6 

1.5 

10.3 

2.2 

70.4 

5.0 

Flint  corn     .... 

11.3 

1.4 

10.5 

1.7 

70.1 

5.0 

Soft  corn       .... 

31.1 

0.9 

7.4 

1.3 

55.7 

3.6 

Corn  meal     .... 

11.8 

1.4 

9.8 

2.4 

70.5 

4.1 

Corn  and  cob  meal     . 

11.0 

1.4 

8.9 

6.7 

68.4 

3.6 

Wheat 

10.5 

1.8 

11.9 

1.8 

71.9 

2.1 

Rye 

11.6 

1.9 

10.6 

1.7 

72.5 

1.7 

Oats 

11.0 

3.0 

11.8 

9.5 

59.7 

5.0 

Barley 

12.0 

2.5 

11.4 

5.7 

66.6 

1.8 

Emmer  (spelt)        .     . 

8.0 

3.9 

11.5 

11.1 

62.9 

2.2 

Rice 

12.4 

0.4 

7.4 

0.2 

79.2 

0.4 

Buckwheat        .     .     . 

12.6 

2.0 

10.0 

8.7 

64.5 

2.2 

Kafir  grain 

12.3 

1.9 

12.3 

2.2 

68.2 

3.1 

Milo  grain          .     .     . 

11.2 

1.6 

11.2 

2.2 

70.6 

2.8 

Feterita  grain    .     .     . 

10.5 

2.0 

12.1 

2.4 

70.3 

2.7 

Durra  grain       .     .     . 

11.5 

2.0 

9.0 

3.6 

70.1 

3.8 

Shallu  grain       .     .     . 

10.7 

1.7 

12.4 

1.7 

70.1 

3.4 

Kaoliang  grain 

10.9 

1.9 

10.5 

1.7 

70.9 

4.1 

Sorghum  grain       .     . 

12.8 

2.1 

9.1 

2.6 

69.8 

3.6 

Millet 

12.0 

2.6 

11.1 

7.7 

62.9 

3.7 

Legumes 

Cowpea 

11.9 

3.4 

23.5 

3.8 

55.7 

1.7 

Horse  bean  .... 

11.3 

3.8 

26.6 

7.2 

50.1 

1.0 

Field  pea      .... 

10.5 

2.6 

20.2 

5.6 

57.8 

1.1 

Peanut  (A^th  hull) 

6.6 

2.6 

23.2 

18.4 

14.2 

35.0 

Peanut  (without  hull) 

7.5 

2.4 

27.9 

3.0 

16.6 

42.6 

Soybean  

8.7 

5.4 

36.3 

3.9 

27.7 

18.0 

Velvet  bean       .     .     . 

11.7 

2.6 

20.8 

7.5 

51.0 

6.4 

335 


336  APPENDIX 

Table  28.    Average  Composition  of  Feedingstuffs  (Continued) 


1 

Carbohydrates 

Feedingstuff 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 

Protein 

Fat 

Crude 

N-free  ' 

Fiber 

Extract 

Grains  and  Se 

:eds 

(Continued) 

1 

Oil-bearing  Seeds 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent    Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Cottonseed  .     . 

.     .       9.1 

4.0 

19.6 

18.9 

28.3 

20.1 

Flaxseed        .     . 

.     .       9.2 

4.3 

22.6 

7.1 

23.2 

33.7 

Sunflower  seed 

.     .       8.6 

2.6 

16.3 

29.9 

21.4 

21.2 

Cereal  By-proi 

)UCTS 

Hominy  feed     . 

.     .      10.0 

2.8 

10.8 

4.9 

64.6 

6.9 

Gluten  feed 

.     .       8.5 

1.9 

25.9 

7.2 

53.3 

3.2 

Gluten  meal 

.     .       9.5 

1.0 

36.0 

2.1 

49.1 

2.3 

Germ  oilmeal    . 

.     .       9.0 

2.7 

22.7 

9.3 

45.9 

10.4 

Corn  bran     . 

•.     .       8.7 

-    1.5 

9.8 

11.2 

62.6 

6.2 

Corn  cobs     .     . 

.     .      10.7 

1.4 

2.4 

30.1 

54.9 

0.5 

Distillers'  grains 

>,  dried      5.8 

2.8 

30.9 

10.7 

39.2 

10.6 

Distillers'  grain 

s,  wet     75.7 

1.0 

5.4 

3.8 

12.5 

1.6 

Wheat  flour 

.     .      11.5 

0.5 

11.4 

0.2 

75.4 

1.0 

Red  dog  flour    . 

.     .        9.7 

3.5 

19.5 

2.8 

59.3 

5.2 

Flour  wheat  mic 

Idhngs     10.0 

3.2 

18.8 

3.3 

59.9 

4.8 

Shorts      .     .     . 

.     .      10.0 

4.3 

17.8 

7.0 

55.9 

5.0 

Wheat  bran 

.     .      10.0 

6.2 

16.1 

10.0 

53.3 

4.4 

Wheat     feed     ( 

shorts 

and  bran) 

.     .      10.0 

5.3 

16.9 

8.1 

55.2 

4.5 

Wheat  screenin 

?s        .      11.6 

2.9 

12.5 

6.9 

63.1 

3.0 

Rye  middhngs 

.     .      11.0 

3.3 

14.8 

3.8 

64.4 

2.7 

Rye  bran 

.     .      11.6 

3.6 

14.7 

3.5 

63.8 

2.8 

Rye  feed  (short 

s  and 

bran)    . 

.     .        9.1 

3.9 

15.1 

4.0 

64.6 

3.2 

Oat  middhngs 

.     .        9.0 

2.3 

15.8 

2.4 

64.3 

6.2 

Oat  bran 

.     .       6.6 

6.1 

12.2 

18.3 

.52.1 

4.7 

Oat  dust 

.     .       6.7 

7.0 

12.6 

18.7 

49.8 

5.2 

Oat  hulls       . 

.     .        7.3 

6.7 

3.3 

29.7 

52.1 

1.0 

Malt    .     .     . 

.     .        7.5 

2.4 

9.5 

9.0 

69.1 

2.5 

Malt  sprouts 

.     .      11.0 

5.9 

26.4 

12.3 

43.1 

1.3 

Brewers'  grains 

dried       8.0 

3.4 

24.1 

13.0 

44.8 

6.7 

Brewers'  grains 

wet        75.7 

1.0 

5.4 

3.8 

12.5 

1.6 

APPENDIX  337 

Table  28.    Average  Composition  op  Feedingstuffs  (Continued) 




Carbohydrates 

Feedingstuff 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 

PROTEI^ 

Fat 

J    ^ 

Crude 

N-free 

Fiber 

Extract 

Cereal  By-products 

(Continued) 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Percent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Rice  polish  .     .     , 

.      10.2 

5.5 

12.3 

2.5 

60.2 

9.3 

Rice  bran     .     ,     . 

.      10.2 

10.6 

12.6 

13.5 

41.3 

11.8 

Rice  meal     .     ,     . 

.      12.6 

10.2 

12.0 

8.0 

45.2 

12.0 

Buckwheat  middhngs 

,      11.5 

4.5 

27.5 

4.2 

45.3 

7.0 

Buckwheat  bran    . 

.      11.5 

4.5 

24.8 

11.7 

40.8 

6.7 

Buckwheat  feed     . 

.      10.0 

3.2 

15.9 

22.0 

44.8 

4.1 

Buckwheat  hulls    . 

.      13.2 

2.2 

4.6 

43.5 

35.3 

1.1 

Oil  By-products 

Cottonseed          meal 

choice        .     .     . 

7.0 

6.7 

44.6 

6.5 

25.2 

10.0 

Cottonseed          meal 

prime   .... 

7.1 

5.8 

40.0 

10.4 

29.3 

7.4 

Cottonseed  meal,  goo 

d      7.2 

5.8 

37.7 

11.8 

30.1 

7.5 

Cold  pressed  cotton- 

seed       

8.4 

4.0 

26.6 

25.8 

28.4 

7.9 

Cottonseed  feed     .     . 

8.8 

4.1 

23.1 

22.6 

36.5 

4.9 

Cottonseed  hulls 

11.1 

2.8 

4.2 

46.3 

33.4 

2.2 

Linseed  meal,  0.  P. 

8.5 

5.2 

34.3 

8.5 

36.4 

7.1 

Linseed  meal,  N.  P. 

9.0 

5.6 

37.4 

8.9 

36.4 

2.7 

Flax  feed      .     .     .     . 

9.5 

7.3 

16.6 

11.2 

41.2 

14.2 

Flax  screenings      .     . 

8.0 

6.0 

16.8 

13.7 

40.9 

14.6 

Peanut  cake      .     .     . 

10.7 

4.9 

47.6 

5.1 

23.7 

8.0 

Soybean  cake    .     .     . 

8.0 

5.4 

41.6 

4.8 

31.6 

8.6 

Coconut  meal   .     .     . 

10.5 

5.2 

21.4 

11.7 

42.7 

8.5 

Palmnut  cake   .     .     . 

9.7 

4.0 

17.7 

23.8 

36.2 

8.6 

Rapeseed  cake       ,     . 

10.0 

7.7 

33.1 

11.1 

27.9 

10.2 

Sesame  cake      .     .     . 

9.5 

10.7 

39.8 

6.8 

20.6 

12.6 

Sunflower  cake .     .     , 

9.2 

6.3 

39.4 

11.8 

20.7 

12.6 

Hempseed  cake      .     . 

12.0 

8.0 

31.8 

20.2 

18.0 

10.0 

Packinghouse  By-prod 

_ 

UCTS 

Dried  blood       .     .     . 

8.5 

4.7 

84.4 

2.5 

Fish  meal      .     .     .     . 

10.8      29.2 

48.4 

— 

11.6 

338  APPENDIX 

Table  28.     Average  Composition  of  Feedingstuffs  (Continued) 


1 

Carbohydrates 

Water  , 

Ash 

Crude  ! 
Protein 

Fat 

Feedingstcff 

Crude 

N-free 

Fiber 

Extract 

Packinghouse  By-prod- 

' 

ucts  (Continued) 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Percent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Pork  cracklings 

5.3 

2.0 

53.9 

— 

— •       . 

36.8 

Bone  meal    .... 

8.0 

64.4 

23.9 

— 

3.4 

0.3 

Tankage,  good  grade 

7.0 

15.0 

61.0 

3.5 

3.5 

10.0 

Miscellaneous  Con- 

centrates 

Beet  pulp,  wet       .     . 

89.9 

0.4 

1.0 

2.2 

6.3 

0.2 

Beet  pulp,  dry       .     . 

10.0 

3.3 

9.1 

18.6 

58.3 

0.7 

Beet  pulp,  molasses    . 

8.0 

5.8 

9.9 

14.1 

61.7 

0.5 

Cocoa  shells 

5.0 

10.3 

15.4 

16.5 

49.8 

3.0 

Molasses,  beet  .     .     . 

20.8 

10.6 

9.1 

— 

59.5 

— 

Molasses,  cane 

26.0 

6.2 

3.2 

— 

64.6 

— 

Molasses  feed    .     .     . 

11.0 

6.8 

13.3 

10.8 

53.0 

5.1 

Molasses-alfalfa  feed 

11.5 

9.1 

12.1 

17.1 

47.7 

1.5 

Cow's  milk,  whole 

87.2 

0.7 

3.6 

— 

4.9 

3.7 

Cow's  milk,  skim  . 

90.5 

0.8 

3.6 

— 

5.1 

0.1 

Buttermilk  .... 

90.4 

0.8 

3.6 

— ■ 

5.0 

0.2 

Whey 

93.8 

0.4 

0.6 

— 

5.1 

0.1 

Hays 

Legumes 

Alfalfa 

9.1 

8.4 

14.7 

28.4 

35.8 

1.9 

Alfalfa  (brown)      .     . 

20.0 

8.8 

12.9 

21.4 

33.8 

3.1 

Alfalfa  meal       .     .     . 

9.0 

8.0 

13.2 

32.7 

35.8 

1.3 

Alfalfa  leaves    . 

6.8 

13.6 

22.3 

12.8 

41.1 

3.4 

Beggar  weed 

9.0 

8.4 

15.2 

27.6 

37.5 

2.3 

Clover,  alsike    .     .     . 

15.0 

9.7 

14.0 

23.1 

36.1 

2.1 

Clover,  bur 

10.4 

10.7 

18.0 

26.3 

31.4 

3.1 

Clover,  crimson     .     . 

9.6 

8.6 

15.2 

27.2 

36.6 

2.8 

Clover,  mammoth 

15.0 

8.2 

13.1 

24.4 

37.6 

1.7 

Clover,  red  .... 

15.0 

7.7 

13.3 

24.3 

37.2 

2.5 

Clover,  red  (brown) 

14.5 

8.6 

13.8 

23.7 

36.8 

2.6 

Clover,  sweet    .     .     . 

9.0 

7.3 

14.4 

27.3 

39.9 

2.1 

APPENDIX  339 

Table  28.    Average  Composition  of  Feedingstuffs  (Continued) 


Carbohydrates 

Feedingstuff 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
Protein 

Fat 

Crude 

N-free 

Fiber 

Extract 

Hays  (Continued) 

Legumes 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Clover,  white    .     .     . 

9.7 

8.3 

15.7 

24.1 

39.3 

2.9 

Cowpea 

10.7 

8.5 

18.6 

20.1 

39.2 

2.9 

Lespedeza    or    Japan 

clover 

11.0 

8.5 

13.8 

24.0 

39.0 

3.7 

Lupine 

16.0 

4.5 

15.3 

19.0 

43.2 

2.0 

Pea,  Canada  field 

15.0 

6.7 

13.7 

24.7 

37.6 

2.3 

Peanut  vine       .     .     . 

7.6 

10.8 

10.7 

23.6 

42.7 

4.6 

Sanfoin 

16.5 

7.3 

13.2 

22.0 

38.5 

2.5 

Serradella     .... 

9.2 

7.2 

15.2 

21.6 

44.2 

2.6 

Soybean  

11.3 

7.2 

15.4 

22.3 

38.6 

5.2 

Velvet  bean       .     .     . 

7.2 

7.4 

16.4 

27.5 

38.4 

3.1 

Vetch 

13.2 

7.5 

17.7 

23.3 

35.9 

2.3 

Grasses 

Bermuda  grass       .     . 

8.9 

7.9 

7.2 

24.9 

49.4 

1.8 

Bluegrass      .... 

14.0 

6.4 

7.7 

30.5 

39.7 

1.7 

Brome  grass      .     .     . 

6.7 

7.7 

8.7 

31.5 

44.4 

1.0 

Buffalo  grass     . 

7.6 

11.3 

7.9 

26.1 

45.3 

1.8 

Fescue,  meadow    .     . 

14.0 

7.1 

5.8 

32.2 

39.3 

1.6 

Johnson  grass    . 

9.7 

7.1 

7.2 

30.0 

44.1 

1.9 

Millet 

10.2 

7.9 

7.7 

27.7 

49.0 

2.3 

Mixed  grasses   .     ,     . 

14.0 

5.3 

7.9 

28.7 

43.2 

2.2 

Orchard  grass   .     .     . 

14.0 

5.9 

8.3 

29.9 

39.3 

2.6 

Prairie  hay        .     .     . 

13.3 

13.8 

5.5 

26.4 

43.4 

2.5 

Red  top 

8.9 

5.2 

7.9 

28.6 

47.5 

1.9 

Rye  grass,  Italian 

8.5 

6.9 

7.5 

30.5 

45.0 

1.7 

Sudan  grass       .     .     . 

3.5 

5.6 

4.7 

35.6 

49.3 

1.3 

Salt  marsh    .... 

15.0 

6.6 

6.1 

23.4 

46.8 

2.1 

Timothy,  all  analyses 

13.2 

4.4 

5.9 

29.0 

45.0 

2.5 

Timothy,  full  bloom 

15.0 

4.5 

6.0 

29.6 

41.9 

3.0 

Timothy,  late  bloom 

14.2 

4.4 

5.7 

28.1 

44.6 

3.0 

Timothy,  nearly  ripe 

14.1 

3.9 

5.0 

31.1 

43.7 

2.2 

Barley  hay   .... 

10.6 

5.3 

9.3 

23.6 

48.7 

2.5 

Emmer  hay       .     .     . 

7.7 

9.3 

10.0 

33.6 

37.3 

2.1 

Oat  hay        .... 

13.4 

6.0 

7.7 

27.8 

42.2 

2.9 

Rye  hay       .... 

8.0 

4.9 

■6.8 

37.6 

40.7 

2.0 

340  APPENDIX 

Table  28.    Average  Composition  of  Feedingstuffs  (Continiipd) 


Carbohydrates 

Feedingstuff 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
Protein 

Fat 

Crude 

N-free 

Fiber 

Extract 

Fodders  and  Stovers 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Corn  fodder      .     .     . 

18.3 

4.0 

6.7 

17.0 

52.1 

1.8 

Corn  fodder,  high  in 

water 

40.2 

3.7 

4.5 

15.3 

34.7 

1.6 

Corn  stover       .     .     . 

17.0 

6.3 

5.6 

28.0 

42.1 

1.0 

Corn  stover,   high  in 

water 

40.0 

3.9 

4.6 

20.6 

30.1 

0.8 

Kafir  fodder      .     .     . 

8.4 

11.8 

13.1 

22.4 

40.2 

4.1 

Kafir  stover       .     .     . 

19.2 

8.0 

4.8 

26.8 

39.6 

1.6 

Milo  fodder       .     .     . 

8.9 

11.5 

13.0 

19.5 

41.6 

5.0 

Sorghum  fodder     .     . 

8.9 

5.7 

5.4 

28.5 

48.8 

2.8 

Sorghum  fodder,  high 

in  water 

28.0 

4.0 

4.0 

24.0 

37.0 

3.0 

Durra  fodder     .     .     . 

10.0 

5.2 

6.4 

24.1 

51.5 

2.8 

Broom  corn  fodder     . 

9.4 

5.7 

3.9 

36.8 

42.4 

1.8 

Straws 

Barley  straw     .     .     . 

14.2 

5.7 

3.5 

36.0 

39.1 

1.5 

Buckwheat  straw 

9.9 

5.5 

5.2 

43.0 

35.1 

1.3 

Millet  straw      .     .     . 

15.0 

6.3 

4.8 

35.2 

36.4 

2.3 

Oat  straw     .... 

9.2 

5.1 

4.0 

37.0 

42.4 

2.3 

Rice  straw    .... 

6.6 

14.9 

4.1 

31.6 

41.4 

1.5 

Rye  straw    .... 

7.1 

3.2 

3.0 

38.9 

46.6 

1.2 

Wheat  straw 

9.6 

4.2 

3.4 

38.1 

43.4 

1.3 

Cowpea  straw        .     . 

8.5 

5.4 

6.8 

44.5 

33.6 

1.2 

Soybean  straw  .     . 

10.1 

5.8 

4.6 

40.4 

37.4 

1.7 

Clover  straw     .     .     . 

16.0 

5.7 

9.1 

44.6 

22.8 

1.8 

Pasture  or  Forage, 

and  Soiling  Crops 

Legumes 

Alfalfa 

71.8 

2.7 

4.8 

7.4 

12.3 

1.0 

Beggarweed       .     .     . 

72.8 

3.2 

4.2 

7.5 

11.8 

0.5 

Clover,  alsike    . 

74.8 

2.0 

3.9 

7.4 

11.0 

0.9 

Clover,  bur        .     .     . 

79.3 

2.3 

5.1 

3.9 

7.7 

1.7 

APPENDIX  341 

Table  28.    Average  Composition  of  Feedingstdffs  (Continued) 


Carbohydrates 

Feedingstuff 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
Protein 

Fat 

Crude 

N-free 

Fiber 

Extract 

Pasture  or  Forage, 

AND  Soiling  Crops 

(Continued) 

Legumes 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Clover,  crimson 

80.9 

1.7 

3.1 

5.2 

8.4 

0.7 

Clover,  mammoth 

80.0 

1.9 

3.0 

5.8 

8.9 

0.4 

Clover,  red        .     .     . 

70.8 

2.1 

4.4 

8.1 

13.5 

1.1 

Clover,  sweet    .     .     . 

80.0 

1.9 

3.8 

6.3 

7.4 

0.6 

Clover,  white    .     . 

81.5 

2.1 

4.4 

4.3 

6.9 

0.8 

Cowpea 

85.0 

2.0 

2.8 

3.5 

6.3 

0.4 

Horsebean    .... 

85.1 

1.4 

3.0 

4.3 

5.7 

0.5 

Lupine 

83.1 

1.0 

3.2 

5.3 

7.0 

0.4 

Pea,  Canada  field 

85.0 

1.3 

3.2 

4.3 

5.8 

0.4 

Lespedeza     .... 

63.4 

3.5 

6.7 

10.7 

14.7 

1.0 

Sanfoin 

75.0 

2.1 

4.4 

6.0 

11.6 

0.9 

Serradella     .... 

79.5 

3.2 

2.7 

5.4 

8.6 

0.7 

Soybean  

75.1 

2.6 

4.0 

6.7 

10.6 

1.0 

Velvet  bean 

82.1 

2.0 

3.5 

5.1 

6.6 

0.7 

Vetch 

82.0 

2.5 

4.2 

5.5 

5.4 

0.4 

Grasses 

Bermuda  grass       .     . 

66.8 

2.3 

3.0 

8.0 

18.9 

1.0 

Bluegrass,  Kentucky 

65.1 

2.8 

4.1 

9.1 

17.6 

1.3 

Bluegrass,  Canada 

66.8 

2.6 

3.0 

10.2 

16.2 

1.2 

Brome  grass      .     .     . 

65.5 

3.0 

4.4 

9.5 

16.1 

1.5 

Fescue,  meadow    . 

69.9 

1.8 

2.4 

10.8 

14.3 

0.8 

Johnson  grass   .     .     . 

74.0 

1.4 

2.2 

8.9 

13.2 

0.3 

Millet 

71.1 

1.7 

3.1 

9.2 

14.2 

0.7 

Orchard  grass    .     .     . 

70.0 

2.1 

2.9 

10.4 

13.7 

0.9 

Rye  grass,  Italian 

73.2 

2.5 

3.1 

6.8 

13.3 

1.3 

Red  top        .... 

65.3 

2.3 

2.8 

11.0 

17.7 

0.9 

Tall  oat  grass    . 

69.5 

2.0 

2.4 

9.4 

15.8 

0.9 

Timothy       .     .     . 

61.6 

2.1 

3.1 

11.8 

20.2 

1.2 

Barley 

75.0 

2.1 

3.2 

7.4 

11.6 

0.7 

Oats 

75.0 

2.0 

3  '■> 

7.5 
9.6 

11.2 

8.8 

0.8 
0.6 

Rye 

76.6 

L8 

2.6 

Dent  corn     .... 

80.0 

1.0 

1.6 

4.6 

12.4 

0.4 

342  APPENDIX 

Table  28.    Average  Composition  of  Feedingstuffs  (Continued) 


Carbohydrates 

Feedingstuff 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 
Protein 

Fat 

Crude 

N-free 

Fiber 

Extract 

Pasture  or  Forage, 

AND  Soiling  Crops 

(Continued) 

Grasses 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Flint  corn     .... 

79.8 

1.1 

2.0 

4.3 

12.1 

0.7 

Sweet   corn,    roasting 

ears 

79.1 

1.3 

1.9 

4.4 

12.8 

0.5 

Sweet   corn,   ears   re- 

moved      .... 

80.0 

1.2 

1.4 

4.9 

12.0 

0.5 

Kafir 

73.0 

2.0 

2.3 

6.9 

15.1 

0.7 

Milo 

83.2 

1.5 

1.7 

5.5 

7.5 

0.6 

Sweet  Sorghum      .     . 

80.0 

1.0 

1.2 

6.2 

11.2 

0.4 

Durra 

85.9 

1.3 

1.7 

4.7 

6.0 

0.4 

Broom  corn       .     .     . 

77.1 

1.7 

2.0 

8.6 

10.1 

0.5 

Sugar  cane   .... 

84.2 

1.1 

1.2 

4.0 

9.0 

0.5 

Silage 

Corn,  well  matured    . 

73.7 

1.6 

2.2 

6.5 

15.0 

0.9 

Corn,  immature     .     . 

80.0 

1.1 

1.7 

5.4 

11.1 

0.7 

Corn,  frosted     . 

74.5 

1.7 

2.3 

6.0 

14.6 

0.9 

Corn,  ears  removed 

80.4 

1.4 

1.4 

6.3 

9.8 

0.7 

Durra 

79.7 

1.9 

1.2 

7.0 

9.5 

0.7 

Kafir        

69.2 

2.5 

1.8 

9.9 

15.5 

1.1 

Sorghum       .     .     .     ; 

76.1 

1.1 

1.8 

6.4 

14.3 

0.3 

Alfalfa 

75.4 

2.9 

3.5 

8.2 

8.6 

1.4 

Apple  pomace   .     .     . 

79.7 

1.0 

1.6 

4.3 

12.0 

1.4 

Clover 

72.0 

2.6 

3.7 

8.4 

12.1 

1.2 

Corn  and  soybean 

76.0 

2.3 

2.7 

7.3 

10.9 

0.8 

Cowpea 

78.0 

2.2 

3.1 

6.3 

9.4 

1.0 

Soybean  

74.2 

2.8 

4.1 

9.7 

6.9 

2.2 

Sugar  beet  tops      .     . 

77.0 

7.4 

2.4 

3.4 

9.1 

0.7 

Roots 

Artichoke      .... 

78.0 

1.8 

2.4 

0.9 

16.8 

0.1 

Beet,  common  .     .     . 

88.5 

1.0 

1.5 

0.9 

8.0 

0.1 

Beet,  sugar        .     .     . 

86.7 

0.8 

1.5 

0.9 

9.9 

0.1 

APPENDIX  343 

Table  28.    Average  Composition  of  Feedingstuffs  (Continued) 


Carbohydrates 

Water 

Ash 

Crude 

Fat 

Crude 

N-free 

Fiber 

Extract 

Roots  (Continued) 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Carrot 

88.6 

1.0 

1.1 

1.3 

7.6 

0.4 

Mangel 

91.2 

1.0 

1.4 

0.8 

5.4 

0.2 

Potato 

78.9 

1.0 

2.1 

0.6 

17.3 

0.1 

Rutabaga      .... 

88.6 

1.2 

1.2 

1.3 

7.5 

0.2 

Turnip 

90.6 

0.8 

1.3 

1.2 

5.9 

0.2 

Miscellaneous 

Roughages 

Apple 

80.7 

0.4 

0.7 

1.2 

16.6 

0.4 

Apple  pomace        .     . 

76.7 

0.5 

1.4 

3.9 

16.2 

1.3 

Cabbage  

90.5 

1.4 

2.4 

1.5 

3.9 

0.4 

Kale 

89.7 

1.9 

2.2 

1.2 

4.5 

0.5 

Kohlrabi       .... 

86.5 

1.6 

2.8 

1.6 

7.1 

0.4 

Melon,  pie  or  stock    . 

94.5 

0.4 

0.8 

1.2 

2.9 

0.2 

Pumpkin       .     .     .     . 

90.9 

0.5 

1.3 

1.7 

5.2 

0.4 

Rape 

84.5 

2.0 

2.3 

2.6 

8.4 

0.5 

Sugar  beet  leaves 

83.8 

4.8 

2.3 

1.6 

7.4 

0.4 

Table  29.  —  Percentage  of  Total  Dry  Substance  and  Di- 
gestible Nutrients  in  Feedingstuffs  for  Horses, 
Cattle,  and  Sheep  ^ 


Feedingstuff 

Total.  Dry 

Substance 

Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 
Fat 

Grains  and  Seeds 

Cereals 

Dent  corn    .... 
Flint  corn    .... 
Soft  corn      .... 
Corn  meal   .... 

Per  cent 
89.4 

88.7 
68.9 

88.2 

Per  cent 

7.6 

7.8 
5.5 
7.3 

Per  cent 
67.5 
66.9 

53.1 
67.7 

Per  cent 

4.6 
4.6 
3.3 
3.8 

Feedingstuffs  for  hogs  are  given  in  Table  30,  page  352. 


344 


APPENDIX 


Table  29.  Percentage  of  Total  Dry  Substance  and  Di- 
(JESTIBLE  Nutrients  in  Feedingstuffs  for  Horses,  Cattle, 
AND  Sheep.     (Continued) 


Feedingstuff 

Total  Dry 
Substance 

Digestible 
Cbude 

I*ROTEIN 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 
Fat 

Grains  and  Seeds 

(Continued) 

Cereals 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Corn  and  aoh  meal    . 

89.0 

4.6 

63.2 

3.0 

Wheat 

89.5 

8.8 

68.0 

1.5 

Rye    .... 

88.4 

8.9 

68.3 

1.1 

Oats   .... 

89.0 

9.2 

51.7 

4.3 

Barley     .     .     . 

88.0 

8.9 

64.5 

1.4 

Emmer  (spelt) 

92.0 

9.2 

63.1 

1.9 

Rice    .... 

87.6 

4.6 

73.0 

0.4 

Buckwheat  . 

87.4 

7.5 

51.1 

2.2 

Kafir  grain  .     . 

87.7 

10.0 

63.9 

2.4 

Milo  grain  .     . 

88.8 

9.2 

66.2 

2.1 

Feterita  grain  . 

89.5 

9.8 

66.0 

2.1 

Durra  grain 

88.5 

7.3 

66.5 

2.9 

Shallu  grain 

89.3 

10.0 

65.4 

2.6 

Kaoliang  grain 

89.1 

8.5 

66.1 

3.1 

Sorghum  grain 

87.2 

7.4 

65.6 

2.7 

Millet      .     .     . 

88.0 

7.2 

58.3 

2.8 

Legumes 

Cowpea 

88.1 

19.3 

54.2 

1.3 

Horse  bean .... 

88.7 

23.1 

49.8 

0.8 

Field  pea     .... 

89.5 

16.8 

55.8 

0.6 

Peanut  (with  hull)     . 

93.4 

19.5 

25.3 

28.7 

Peanut           (without 

hull) 

92.5 

23.4 

14.5 

34.9 

Soybean       .... 

91.3 

30.5 

23.4 

14.8 

Velvet  bean      .     .     . 

88.3 

17.5 

43.3 

5.2 

Oil-Bearing  Seeds 

Cottonseed  .... 

90.9 

13.3 

28.5 

17.5 

Flaxseed      .... 

90.8 

20.6 

17.1 

29.0 

Sunflower  seed      .     . 

91.4 

11.1 

33.4 

18.4 

APPENDIX 


345 


Table  29.  Percentage  of  Total  Dry  Substance  and  Di- 
gestible Nutrients  in  Feedingstuffs  for  Horses,  Cattle, 
AND  Sheep.     (Continued) 


Feedingstuff 

Total  Dry 
Substance 

Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 
Fat 

Cereal  By-products 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Hominy  feed  .... 

90.0 

7.1 

61.8 

6.3 

Gluten  feed     .... 

91.5 

22.0 

52.4 

2.7 

Gluten  meal    .... 

90.5 

30.6 

45.4 

2.1 

Germ  oilmeal .... 

91.0 

16.6 

43.0 

10.0 

Corn  bran 

91.3 

5.9 

58.1 

5.0 

Corn  cobs 

89.3 

0.5 

46.6 

0.2 

Distillers'  grains,  dried 

94.2 

22.6 

42.0 

10.1 

Distillers' grains,  wet    . 

24.3 

3.9 

13.7 

1.5 

Wheat  flour     .... 

88.5 

10.0 

66.5 

0.9 

Red  dog  flour       .     .     . 

90.3 

17.2 

53.2 

4.5 

Flour  wheat  middlings 

90.0 

16.5 

53.9 

4.1 

Shorts 

90.0 

13.7 

45.7 

4.4 

Wheat  bran     .... 

90.0 

12.6 

41.5 

3.0 

Wheat  feed  (shorts  and 

bran)  

90.0 

13.0 

44.9 

3.9 

Wheat  screenings     .     . 

88.4 

9.0 

51.1 

2.6 

Rye  middlings     .     . 

89.0 

11.8 

60.0 

2.4 

Rye  bran 

88.4 

11.8 

59.2 

2.5 

Rye   feed    (shorts   and 

bran)  

90.9 

12.1 

60.4 

2.9 

Oat  middlings      .     . 

91.0 

12.6 

55.9 

5.8 

Oat  bran 

93.4 

9.8 

53.3 

4.4 

Oat  dust 

93.3 

10.1 

51.5 

4.8 

Oat  hulls 

92.7 

1.7 

45.4 

0.8 

Malt 

92.5 

7.6 

64.6 

1.9 

Malt  sprouts  .... 

89.0 

20.3 

45.2 

1.1 

Brewers'  grains,  dried  . 

92.0 

19.5 

31.9 

6.0 

Brewers'  grains,  wet     . 

24.3 

4.4 

9.0 

1.4 

Rice  polish      .... 

89.8 

8.2 

55.5 

7.6 

Rice  bran 

89.8 

8.2 

36.0 

9.1 

Rice  meal 

87.4 

7.4 

48.9 

10.9 

Buckwheat  middhngs  . 

88.5 

23.4 

37.6 

6.2 

Buckwheat  bran 

88.5 

11.7 

27.4 

3.8 

346 


APPENDIX 


Table  20.  Pertentage  of  Total  Dry  Substance  and  Di- 
gestible Nutrients  in  Feeding6Tuffs  for  Horses,  Cattle, 
and  Sheep.     (Continued) 


Feedingstuff 


Oil  By-products 


Cottonseed  meal,  choice 
Cottonseed  meal,  prime 
Cottonseed  meal,  good 
Cold  pressed  cottonseed 
Cottonseed  feed  . 
Cottonseed  hulls 
Linseed  meal,  O.  P. 
Linseed  meal,  X.  P. 
Flax  feed    .     .     . 
Flax  screenings    , 
Peanut  cake    . 
Soybean  cake 
Coconut  meal 
Palmnut  cake 
Hempseed  cake    . 
Rapeseed  cake     . 
Sesame  cake    . 
Sunflower  cake     . 

Packinghouse  By- 
products 

Dried  blood  .  .  . 
Fish  meal  .... 
Tankage,  good  grade 


Total  Dry 
Substance 


Digestible  I  Digestible 
Crude       j    Carbohy- 

PrOTEIN  DRATE8 


Digestible 
Fat 


Miscellaneous  Con- 
centrates 

Beet  pulp,  wet     . 
Beet  pulp,  dry     .     . 
Beet  pulp,  molasses 
Cocoa  shells    .     .     . 
Molasses,  beet      .     . 


Per  cent 

93.0 
92.9 
92.8 
91.6 
91.2 
88.9 
91. .5 
91.0 
90.5 
92.0 
89.3 
92.0 
89.5 
90.3 
88.0 
90.0 
90.5 
90.8 


91.5 

S0.2 
93.0 


10.1 
90.0 
92.0 
95.0 
79.2 


Per  cent 

37.5 
33.6 
31.7 
21.5 
13.4 
0.3 
30.5 
32.2 
14.8 
15.0 
42.8 
38.3 
16.7 
15.0 
23.9 
27.4 
35.8 
33.5 


70.9 

37.8 
56.7 


0.5 
4.7 
6.3 
1.7 
2.9 


Per  cent 

21.3 
25.8 
27.0 
32.8 
32.5 
33.2 
33.2 
38.2 
38.5 
39.7 
20.4 
36.4 
41.4 
45.1 
11.9 
23.2 
13.6 
18.2 


7.1 

63.8 
67.9 

44.8 
53.6 


Per  cent 

9.5 

7.0 

7.1 

7.6 

4.4 

1.7 

6.3 

2.6 

12.6 

13.0 

7.2 

5.8 

8.2 

8.3 

9.0 

8.1 

11.3 

11.1 


2.4 

11.6 

9.8 


0.1 
0.5 
0.4 
3.0 


APPENDIX 


34' 


Table  29.  Percentage  of  Total  Dry  Substance  and  Di- 
gestible Nutrients  in  Feedingstuffs  for  Horses,  Cattle, 
AND  Sheep.     (Continued) 


Feedingstuff 

Total  Dry 
Substance 

Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 

Fat 

Miscellaneous  Con- 

centrates (Continued) 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Molasses,  cane     .     .     . 

74.0 

1.0 

58.1 

— 

Molasses,  feed      .     .     . 

89.0 

4.1 

47.3 

4.6 

Molasses-alfalfa  feed     . 

88.5 

5.6 

46.2 

1.4 

Cow's  milk,  whole    . 

12.8 

3.6 

4.9 

3.7 

Cow's  milk,  skim      .     . 

9.5 

3.6 

5.1 

0.1 

Buttermilk      .... 

9.6 

3.6 

5.0 

0.2 

Whey 

6.2 

0.6 

5.1 

0.1 

Hays 

Legumes 

Alfalfa 

90.9 

10.4 

38.0 

0.7 

Alfalfa  (brown)     .     . 

80  0 

9.0 

28.2 

1.6 

Alfalfa  meal     .     .     . 

91.0 

9.8 

40.8 

0.5 

Alfalfa  leaves  .     .     . 

93.2 

15.8 

35.1 

1.3 

Beggar  weed    . 

91.0 

11.4 

36.4 

0.7 

Clover,  alsike  .     .     . 

85.0 

9.2 

35.4 

0.8 

Clover,  bur 

89.6 

14.6 

40.7 

1.5 

Clover,  crimson    .     . 

90.4 

10.5 

36.6 

1.2 

Clover,  mammoth     . 

85.0 

7.7 

38.0 

1.0 

Clover,  red  .... 

85.0 

7.7 

37.3 

1.4 

Clover,  red  (brown)  . 

85.5 

8.9 

36.4 

1.3 

Clover,  sweet  .     .     . 

91.0 

10.8 

38.0 

0.7 

Clover,  white  . 

90.3 

11.5 

42.2 

1.5 

Cowpea 

89.3 

12.6 

36.1 

1.1 

Lespedeza   or   Japan 

clover 

89.0 

8.1 

38.7 

2.1 

Lupine 

84.0 

11.5 

43.0 

1.1 

Pea,  Canada  field 

85.0 

9.3 

37.3 

0.9 

Peanut  vine 

92.4 

7.7 

43.0 

3.7 

Sanfoin 

83.5 

9.2 

36.4 

1.6 

Serradella    .     .     .     . 

90.8 

11.4 

38.6 

1.7 

Soybean       .     .     .     . 

88.7 

10.9 

40.2 

1.5 

Velvet  bean      .     .     . 

92.8 

12.0 

40.3 

1.4 

Vetch 

86.8 

12.9 

39.0 

1.5 

348 


APPENDIX 


Table  29.  Percentage  of  Total  Dry  Substance  and  Di- 
gestible Nutrients  in  Feedingstuffs  for  Horses,  Cattle, 
AND  Sheep.     (Continued) 


Feedinustuff 

Total  Dry 
Substance 

Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 
Fat 

Hays  (Continued) 

i 

Grasses 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Bermuda  grass      ,     . 

91.1 

3.7 

38.1 

0.8 

Bluegrass     .... 

86.0 

4.4 

44.3 

0.9 

Brome  grass 

93.3 

4.4 

47.0 

0.4 

Buffalo  grass 

92.4 

4.3 

43.1 

0.8 

Fescue     . 

86.0 

3.0 

44.8 

0.9 

Johnson  grass 

90.3 

3.2 

45.2 

0.9 

Millet      .     . 

89.8 

4.6 

51.6 

1.4 

Mixed  grasses 

86.0 

4.5 

44.6 

1.1 

Orchard  grass 

86.0 

5.0 

40.2 

1.4 

Prairie  hay  . 

86.7 

3.3 

38.3 

1.0 

Red  top  . 

91.1 

4.9 

47.3 

1.0 

Salt  marsh  . 

85.0 

2.7 

38.6 

0.7 

Timothy,    all    analy- 

ses   

86.8 
85.0 

2.8 
3.4 

42.4 
43.3 

1.2 

Timothy,  full  bloom 

1.4 

Timothy,  late  bloom 

85.8 

2.5 

39.2 

1.5 

Timothy,  nearly  ripe 

85.9 

2.1 

40.1 

1.1 

Barley  hay  .... 

89.4 

6.0 

45.3 

1.0 

Emmer  hay 

92.3 

6.5 

44.3 

0.9 

Oat  hay 

86.6 

4.2 

38.1 

1.8 

Rye  hay       .... 

92.0 

3.7 

42.4 

1.2 

Fodders  and  Stovers 

Corn  fodder      .     .     . 

81.7 

3.0 

48.7 

1.3 

Corn  fodder,  high  in 

1 

water 

1      59.8 

2.0 

34.9 

1.1 

Corn  stover 

83.0 

2.1 

43.3 

0.6 

Corn  stover,  high  in 

water 

60.0 

1.7 

31.4 

0.5 

Kafir  fodder     .     .     . 

91.6 

6.0 

40.3 

2.5 

Kafir  stover      .     .     . 

80.8 

1.6 

41.8 

1.2 

Milo  fodder      .     .     . 

91.1 

2.0 

35.3 

3.1 

Sorghum  fodder    .     . 

91.1 

2.1 

4S.1 

1.8 

APPENDIX 


849 


Table  29.  Percentage  of  Total  Dry  Substance  and  Di- 
gestible Nutrients  in  Feedingstuffs  for  Horses,  Cattle, 
AND  Sheep.     (Continued) 


Feedingstuff 

Total  Dry 

Substance 

Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 
Fat 

Fodders  and  Stovers 

.     (Continued) 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Sorghum  fodder,  high 

in  water  .... 

72.0 

1.5 

37.9 

1.9 

Durra  fodder   .     .     . 

90.0 

2.9 

49.0 

1.7 

Broom  corn  fodder    . 

90.6 

1.8 

50.5 

1.1 

Straws 

Barley  straw    .     .     . 

85.8 

0.7 

41.3 

0.6 

Oat  straw    .... 

90.8 

1.2 

38.7 

0.8 

Rice  straw  .... 

93.4 

0.9 

37.6 

0.4 

Rye  straw    .... 

92.9 

0.6 

40.5 

0.4 

Wheat  straw    .     .     . 

90.4 

0.4 

36.3 

0.4 

Cowpea  straw .     .     . 

91.5 

3.4 

39.1 

0.7 

Soybean  straw 

89.9 

2.3 

40.1 

l.O 

Clover  straw    .     .     . 

84.0 

4.5 

31.9 

1.1 

Pasture,  or  Forage 

AND  Soiling  Crops 

Legumes 

Alfalfa 

28.2 

3.6 

12.1 

0.4 

Clover,  alsike  .     .     . 

25.2 

2.6 

12.5 

0.6 

Clover,  bur .... 

20.7 

3.4 

8.1 

1.1 

Clover,  crimson    .     . 

19.1 

2.4 

9.1 

0.5 

Clover,  mammoth     . 

20.0 

2.0 

9.9  ■ 

0.3 

Clover,  red  .... 

29.2 

2.9 

14.8 

0.7 

Clover,  sweet  .     .     . 

20.0 

2.5 

9.1 

0.4 

Clover,  white  .     .     . 

18.5 

2.9 

9.7 

0.5 

Cowpeas      .     .     .     . 

15.0 

2.1 

7.2 

0.2 

Horsebean  .... 

14.9 

2.2 

6.7 

0.3 

Lupines 

16.9 

2.4 

8.3 

0.2 

Peas,  Canada  field    . 

15.0 

2.6 

6.5 

0.2 

Lespedeza    .     .     .     . 

36.6 

4.5 

17.2 

0.6 

Sanfoin 

25.0 

3.2 

11.5 

0.6 

350 


APPEXDIX 


Table  29.  Percentage  of  Total  Dry  Substance  and  Di- 
gestible Nutrients  in  Feedingstuffs  for  Horses,  Cattle, 
and  SiiEEP.     (Continued) 


Fekdingstuff 


Total  Dry 
Substance 


Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 


Digestible 
Fat 


Pasture,  or  Forage 

AND  Soiling  Crops 

(Continued) 

Legumes 

Serradella    .     .     .     . 
Soybeans     .     .     .     . 
Velvet  beans    . 
Vetch 


Grasses 

Bermuda  grass      .     . 

Bluegrass,  Kentucky 

Bluegrass,  Canada     . 

Brome  grass 

Johnson  grass  . 

Millet 

Orchard  grass  . 

Red  top 

Timothy      .... 

Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Dent  corn    .... 

Flint  corn    .... 

Sweet  corn,  roasting 
ears 

Sweet  corn,  ears  re- 
moved     .... 

Kafir 

Milo 

Sweet  Sorghum     .     . 

Durra 

Broom  corn 

Sugar  cane  .... 


Per  cent 

20.5 
24.9 
17.9 
18.0 


33.2 
34.9 
33.2 
34.5 
26.0 
28.9 
30.0 
34.7 
38.4 
25.0 
25.0 
23.4 
20.0 
20.2 

20.9 

20.0 
27.0 
16.8 
20.0 
14.1 
22.9 
15.8 


Per  cent 

1.8 
3.1 
2.7 
3.5 


1.9 
2.9 
1.3 
3.0 
1.4 
2.0 
1.7 
2.0 
1.6 
2.3 
2.6 
2.1 
0.9 
1.0 


1.2 


Per  cent 

9.6 

11.0 

7.2 

7.7 


14.9 
19.7 
17.2 
15.8 
15.0 
15.9 
13.7 
21.3 
19.0 
12.5 
11.0 
14.1 
12.2 
11.9 

12.5 


0.7 

11.6 

1.0 

14.8 

0.7 

8.5 

0.5 

11.6 

0.7 

7.0 

0.9 

12.1 

0.5 

8.7 

Per  cent 

0.5 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 


0.5 
0.8 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
0.5 
0.6 
0.6 
0.4 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 
0.5 

0.4 

0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 


APPENDIX 


351 


Table  29.  Percentage  of  Total  Dry  Substance  and  Di- 
gestible Nutrients  in  Feedingstuffs  for  Horses,  Cattle, 
and  Sheep.     (Continued) 


Feedingstuff 

Total  Dry 

Substance 

Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 
Fat 

Silage 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Corn,  well  matured  .     . 

26.3 

1.1 

14.9 

0.7 

Corn,  immature  . 

20.0 

0.9 

11.2 

0.5 

Corn,  frosted  .... 

25.5 

1.2 

14.3 

0.7 

Corn,  ears  removed  .     . 

19.6 

0.7 

11.1 

0.6 

Durra 

20.3 

0.6 

9.9 

0.3 

Kafir 

30.8 

0.9 

15.2 

0.5 

Sorghum 

23.9 

0.9 

12.9 

0.2 

Alfalfa 

24.6 

1.2 

7.8 

0.6 

Apple  pomace      .     .     . 

20.3 

0.5 

13.0 

0.6 

Clover 

28.0 

1.3 

9.4 

0.5 

Corn  and  soybean    .     . 

24.0 

1.7 

13.0 

0.7 

Cowpea 

22.0 

1.8 

10.2 

0.6 

Soybean      

25.8 

2.7 

9.6 

1.3 

Roots 

Beet,  common      .     .     . 

11.5 

1.4 

8.9 

0.5 

Beet,  sugar      .... 

13.6 

1.1 

9.9 

0.1 

Carrot 

11.4 

1.0 

8.7 

0.4 

Mangel 

8.8 

0.7 

5.3 

0.1 

Potato 

21.1 

1.3 

15.6 

— 

Rutabaga 

11.4 

1.0 

8.1 

0.2 

Turnip 

9.4 

0.9 

6.0 

0.1 

Miscellaneous 

Roughages 

Apple  pomace      .     .     . 

23.3 

0.3 

14.4 

0.6 

Cabbage     

9.5 

2.0 

5.4 

0.2 

Kale 

10.3 

1.8 

4.1 

0.3 

Pumpkin 

9.1 

1.0 

5.6 

0.4 

Rape 

15.5 

2.0 

9.6 

0.2 

352 


APPENDIX 


Table  30.  —  Percentage   of  Total   Dry   Substance   and    Di- 
gestible Nutrients  in  Feedingstuffs  for  Hogs  ' 


Feedingstuff 

Total  Dry 

Substance 

Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 

Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 

Digestible 
Fat 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Shell?d  corn    .... 

89.4 

7.7 

65.8 

3.2 

Ground  corn   .     . 

88.2 

7.4 

66.7 

2.6 

Corn  and  cob  meal 

89.0 

6.8 

59.4 

3.0 

Wheat    .... 

89.5 

9.5 

60.8 

1.5 

Barley    .... 

88.0 

8.8 

60.0 

0.8 

Kye        .... 

88.4 

8.9 

68.3 

0.7 

Sorghum  seed 

87.2 

5.5 

58.1 

2.6 

Millet  seed      .     . 

88.0 

7.5 

60.4 

2.2 

Rice       .... 

87.6 

6.4 

79.2 

2.8 

Wheat  bran     .     . 

90.0 

12.1 

39.1 

3.2 

Wheat  shorts 

90.0 

14.8 

50.2 

4.2 

Wheat  middlings 

90.0 

15.0 

49.4 

4.1 

Red  dog  flour 

90.3 

17.2 

48.8 

1.9 

Pea  meal     .     .     . 

89.5 

18.2 

59.4 

0.5 

Linseed  meal 

91.5 

29.2 

31.2 

5.0 

Soybean  meal 

91.3 

30.5 

28.9 

15.1 

Skim  milk       .     . 

9.5 

3.6 

5.1 

0.1 

Buttermilk 

9.6 

3.6 

5.0 

0.2 

Dried  blood     .     . 

91.5 

60.8 

— 

2.0 

Tankage 

93.0 

43.3 

— 

10.0 

Pork  cracklings   . 

94.7 

50.7 

— • 

36.8 

Potato    .... 

21.1 

1.8 

17.3 

— 

'  Owing  to  the  fact  that  hogs  do  not  digest  their  feeds  with  the  same  degree 
of  thoroughness  as  the  other  farm  animals,  this  tabk<  has  been  calculated  and 
is  recommended  for  use  in  calculating  rations  for  hogs.  The  table  is  not  exten- 
sive due  to  the  few  digestion  experiments  which  have  been  made  with  hogs. 


APPENDIX 


3oi 


Table    31.      Dry    Substance,    Digestible    Protein,    and    Net 
Energy  per  100  Pounds  of  Feed  (Armsby). 


Feedingstuff 


Green  fodder  and  silage 

Alfalfa 

Clover,  red       .     .     . 
Corn  fodder,  green    . 
Corn  silage 
Hungarian  grass  . 

Rape 

Rye 

Timothy      .     .     .     . 


Hay  and  dry  coarse  fodders 
Alfalfa  hay  .... 
Clover  hay,  red  . 
Corn  forage,  field  cured 
Corn  stover,  field  oured 
Cowpea  hay 
Hungarian  hay 
Oat  hay 
Soybean  hay 
Timothy  hay 

Straws 

Oat  straw  . 
Rye  straw  . 
Wheat  straw 


Roots  and  tnbers 
Carrots  .     . 
Mangels 
Potatoes 
Rutabagas  . 
Turnips  .     . 


Grains 

Barley    .... 

Corn 

Corn-and-cob  meal 


Total  Dry 

Substance 


Digest- 
ible 
Protein  ' 


Lbs. 

28.2 
29.2 
20.7 
25.6 
28.9 
14.3 
23.4 
38.4 


91.6 

84.7 
57.8 
59.5 
89.3 
92.3 
84.0 
88.7 
86.8 

90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

11.4 

9.1 

21.1 

11.4 

9.4 

89.1 
89.1 
84.9 


Lbs. 

2.50 
2.21 
0.41 
1.21 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 


6.93 
5.41 
2.13 
1.80 

8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
0.63 
0.37 

0.37 
0.14 
0.45 

0.88 
0.22 

8.37 
6.79 
4.53 


Net 
Energy 


Therms 

12.45 
16.17 
12.44 
16.55 
14.76 
11.43 
11.63 
19.08 


34.41 
34.74 
30.53 
26.53 
40.76 
44.03 
26.97 
38.65 
33.56 

21.21 
20.87 
16.56 

7.82 
4.62 
18.05 
8.00 
5.74 

80.75 

88.84 
72.05 


2a 


1  True  protein,  not  crude  protein. 


354 


APPENDIX 


Table    31.      Dry    Substance,    Digestible    Protein,    and    Net 
Energy  per  100  Pounds  of  Feed  (Armsby).     (Continued) 


Feedinostuff 


Grains   (Continued) 

Oats 

Pea  meal 

Rye 

Wheat 

By-products 

Brewers'-  grains,  dried  . 
Brewers'  grains,  wet 
Buckwheat  middlings    . 
Cottonseed  meal  . 
Distillers'  grains,  dried : 

Principally  corn    . 

Principally  rye  .  . 
Gluten  feed,  dry  .  .  . 
Gluten  meal,  Buffalo  . 
Gluten  meal,  Chicago  . 
Linseed  meal,  O.  P. . 
Linseed  meal,  N.  P. 
Malt  sprouts   .... 

Rye  bran 

Sugar  beet  pulp,  fresh  . 
Sugar  beet  pulp,  dried  . 
Wheat  bran  .... 
Wheat  middlings 


Total  Dry 
Substance 


Lbs. 
89.0 

89.5 
88.4 
89.5 


92.0 
24.3 

88.2 
91.8 

93.0 
93.2 
91.9 
91.8 
90.5 
90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 
10.1 
93.6 
88.1 
84.0 


Digest- 
ible 
Protein  * 


Lbs. 

8.36 

16.77 

8.12 

8.90 


19.04 

3.81 

22.34 

35.15 

21.93 
10.38 
19.95 
21.56 
33.09 
27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
0.63 
6.80 
10.21 
12.79 


Net 
Energy 


Therms 

66.27 
71.75 
81.72 
82.63 


60.01 
14.82 
75.92 
84.20 

79.23 
60.93 
79.32 
88.80 
78.49 
78.92 
74.67 
46.33 
56.65 
7.77 
60.10 
48.23 
77.65 


1  True  protein,  not  crude  protein. 


APPENDIX 


355 


Table  32.  —  Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards 
(Showing  amounts  of  nutrients  per  day  per  1000  pounds  live  weight) 


Animal 

Total 
Dry 

Sub- 

Digest- 
ible 
Crude 

Digest- 
ible 
Carbohy- 

Digest- 
ible 
Fat 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 

stance 

Protein 

drates 

Oxen 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1: 

At  rest  in  stall     . 

18 

0.7 

8.0 

0.1 

11.8 

Fattening  cattle 

First  period    .... 

30 

2.5 

15.0 

0.5 

6.5 

Second  period 

30 

3.0 

14.5 

0.7 

5.4 

Third  period  .... 

26 

2.7 

15.0 

0.7 

6.2 

Milch  cows 

When  yielding  daily     . 

11.0  pounds  of  milk 

25 

1.6 

10.0 

0.3 

6.7 

16.6  pounds  of  milk      . 

27 

2.0 

11.0 

0.4 

6.0 

22.0  pounds  of  milk 

29 

2.5 

13.0 

0.5 

5.7 

27.5  pounds  of  milk      . 

32 

3.3 

13.0 

0.8 

4.5 

Sheep 

Coarse  wool    .... 

20 

1.2 

10.5 

0.2 

9.1 

Fine  wool 

23 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

8.5 

Breeding  ewes 

With  lambs    .     .     .     . 

25 

2.9 

15.0 

0.5 

5.6 

Fattening  sheep 

First  period    .... 

30 

3.0 

15.0 

0.5 

5.4 

Second  period      .     .     . 

28 

3.5 

14.5 

0.6 

4.5 

Horses 

Light  work     .... 

20 

1.5 

9.5 

0.4 

7.0 

Medium  work 

24 

2.0 

11.0 

0.6 

6.2 

Heavy  work   .... 

26 

2.5 

13.3 

0.8 

6.0 

Brood  sows 

22 

2.5 

15.5 

0.4 

6.6 

Fattening  swine 

First  period    .... 

36 

4.5 

25.0 

0.7 

5.0 

Second  period      .     .     . 

32 

4.0 

24.0 

0.5 

6.3 

Third  period  .... 

25 

2.7 

18.0 

0.4 

7.0 

Growing  ca  ttle  (dairy  breeds) 

2-     3  mos.  150  lb. 

23 

4.0 

13.0 

2.0 

4.5 

3-     6  mos.  300  lb. 

24 

3.0 

12.8 

1.0 

5.1 

6-  12  mos.  500  lb. 

27 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

6.8 

12-18  mos.  700  lb. 

26 

1.8 

12.5 

0.4 

7.5 

18-24  mos.  900  lb. 

26 

1.5 

12.0 

0.3 

8.5 

356 


APPENDIX 


Table  32.     Wolff-Lehmann  Feeding  Standards 

(Showing   amounts   of   nutrients   per   day   per    1000   pounds   live 
weight).      (Continued) 


Total 
Dry 

Digest- 
ible 

Digest- 
ible 

Digest- 

Nutri- 

Animal 

Sub- 

Crude 

Carbohy- 

ible 
Fat 

tive 
Ratio 

stance 

Protein 

drates 

Growing  cattle  (beef  breeds) 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1: 

2-  3  mos.  160  lb. 

23 

4.2 

13.0 

2.0 

4.2 

3-  6  mos.  330  lb.     .     . 

24 

3.5 

12.8 

1.5 

4.7 

6-12  mos.  550  lb.     .     . 

25 

2.5 

13.2 

0.7 

6.0 

12-18  mos.  750  lb. 

24 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

6.8 

18-24  mos.  950  lb. 

24 

1.8 

12.0 

0.4 

7.2 

Growing  sheep  (woolbreeds) 

4-     6  mos.  60  lb.     .     . 

25 

3.4 

15.4 

0.7 

5.0 

6-     8  mos.  75  lb.     .     . 

25 

2.8 

13.8 

0.6 

5.4 

8-  11  mos.  80  lb.     .     . 

23 

2.1 

11.5 

0.5 

6.0 

11-15  mos.  901b.     .     . 

22 

1.8 

11.2 

0.4 

7.0 

15-20  mos.  100  lb. 

22 

1.5 

10.8 

0.3 

7.7 

Growing     sheep     {mutton 

breeds) 

4-     6  mos.  60  lb.     .     . 

26 

4.4 

15.5 

0.9 

4.0 

6-     8  mos.  80  lb.     .     . 

26 

3.5 

15.0 

0.7 

4.8 

8-  11  mos.  100  1b. 

24 

3.0 

14.3 

0.5 

5.2 

11-15  mos.  120  1b. 

23 

2.2 

12.6 

0.5 

6.3 

15-20  mos.  150  lb. 

22 

2.0 

12.0 

0.4 

6.5 

Growing    swine    {breeding 

stock) 

2-  3  mos.    50  lb.     .     . 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

4.0 

3-  5  mos.  100  lb.     .     . 

35 

4.8 

22.5 

0.7 

5.0 

5-  6  mos.  120  lb.     .     . 

32 

3.7 

21.3 

0.4 

6.0 

6-  8  mos.  200  lb.     .     . 

28 

2.8 

18.7 

0.3 

7.0 

8-12  mos.  250  lb.     .     . 

25 

2.1 

15.3 

0.2 

7.5 

Growing,  fattening  swine 

2-  3  mos.     .50  lb.     .     . 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.0 

4.0 

3-  5  mos.  100  lb.     .     . 

35 

5.0 

23.1 

O.S 

5.0 

5-  6  mos.  1.50  lb.     .     . 

33 

4.3 

22.3 

().() 

5.5 

6-  8  mos.  200  lb.     .     . 

30 

3.6 

20^5 

0.4 

6.0 

9-12  mos.  300  lb.     .     . 

26 

3.0 

18.3 

0.3 

6.4 

APPENDIX 


357 


Table  33.     Henry-Morrison  Feeding  Standards 


Digestible 

Total  Di- 

Crude  Protein 

NUTRIENTS 

Dairy  Cows 

Lb. 

Lb. 

For  maintenance  of  1000-lb.  cow    .     . 

0.700 

7.925 

To  allowance  for  maintenance  add 

For  each  lb.  of  2.5  per  cent  milk     . 

0.045-0.053 

0.256 

For  each  lb.  of  3.0  per  cent  milk 

0.047-0.057 

0.286 

For  each  lb.  of  3.5  per  cent  milk 

0.049-0.061 

0.316 

For  each  lb.  of  4.0  per  cent  milk 

0.054-0.065 

0.346 

For  each  lb.  of  4.5  per  cent  milk 

0.057-0.069 

0.376 

For  each  lb.  of  5.0  per  cent  milk 

0.060-0.073 

0.402 

For  each  lb.  of  5.5  per  cent  milk 

0.064-0.077 

0.428 

For  each  lb.  of  6.0  per  cent  milk 

0.067-0.081 

0.454 

For  each  lb.  of  6.5  per  cent  milk 

0.072-0.085 

0.482 

For  each  lb.  of  7.0  per  cent  milk 

0.074-0.089 

0.505 

Per  1000  Lb.  Live  Weight 

Live  Weight 

Dry 

Substance 

Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 

Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Growing,          fattening 

steers 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

1: 

100  lb. 

14.1 

3.2 

16.6 

4.2 

150  lb. 

20.7 

3.3 

17.2 

4.2 

200  lb. 

24.0 

3.4 

17.4 

4.1 

250  lb. 

25.6 

3.0 

17.7 

4.9 

300  1b. 

26.7 

2.7 

17.9 

5.6 

350  lb. 

25.3 

2.4 

16.8 

6.0 

400  lb. 

24.3 

2.2 

15.8 

6.2 

450  lb. 

24.1 

2.1 

16.1 

6.7 

500  lb. 

23.9 

2.1 

15.8 

6.5 

550  lb. 

23.6 

2.0 

15.6 

6.6 

600  1b. 

23.2 

2.0 

15.4 

6.7 

700  lb. 

22.6 

2.0 

14.8 

6.4 

800  lb. 

21.4 

2.0 

14.3 

0.3 

900  1]>. 

20.2 

2.0 

13.6 

5.8 

1000  lb. 

19.7 

1.8 

13.5 

6.5 

1100  1b. 

18.1 

1.6 

12.6 

6.9 

1200  lb. 

17.3 

1.5 

12.3 

7.2 

358 


APPENDIX 


Table  33.     Henry-Morrison  Feeding  Standards.     (Continued) 


Per  Day  per  1000  Lbs.  Live  Weight 

Animal 

r>„.             Digestible 

Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 

Fattening        2-Yr.-0ld 

Steers  on  Full  Feed 

First  50-60  days   . 

Second  50-60  days 

Third  50-60  days 

Lb. 

22.0-25.0 
21.0-24.0 
18.0-22.0 

Lb. 

2.0-2.3 
1.9-2.3 
1.8-2.1 

Lb. 

18.0-20.0 
17.0-19.5 
16.0-18.5 

1: 

7.0-7.8 
7.0-7.8 
7.0-7.8 

Ox  at  Rest  in  Stall  .     . 

13.0-21.0 

0.6-0.8 

8.4-104 

1O0-16.0 

Wintering    Beef    Cows 
in  Calf 

14.0-25.0 

0.7-0.9 

9.0-12.0 

1O0-15.0 

Horses 

Idle 

At  light  work  .     . 
At  medium  work  . 
At  hea\'y  work 

13.0-18.0 
15.0-22.0 
16.0-24.0 
18.0-26.0 

0.8-1.0 
1.1-1.4 
1.4-1.7 
2.0-2.2 

7.0-  9.0 
1O0-13.1 
12.8-15.6 
15.9-19.5 

8.0-9.0 

8.0-8.5 
7.8-8.3 
7.0-8.0 

Brood  Mares  Suckling 
Foals,  but  not  at  Work- 

15.0-22.0 

1.2-1.5 

9.0-12.0 

6.5-7.5 

Growing  colts,  Over  Six 
Months 

18.0-22.0 

1.6-1.8 

11.0-13.0 

6.0-7.0 

Fattening  Lambs 

Weight  50-70    lb. 
Weight  70-90    lb. 
Weight  90-110  lb. 

27.0-30.0 
28.0-31.0 
27.0-31.0 

3.1-3.3 

2.5-2.8 
2.3-2.5 

19.0-22.0 
20.0-23.0 
19.0-23.0 

5.0-6.0 
6.7-7.2 
7.0-8.0 

Sheep,        Maintaining 
Mature 
Coarse  wool      .     . 
Fine  wool     .     .     . 

18.0-23.0 
20.0-26.0 

1.1-1.3 
1.4-1.6 

11.0-13.0 
12.0-14.0 

8.0-9.1 
7.5-8.5 

Breeding     Ewes     with 
Lambs 

23.0-27.0 

2.6-2.9 

18.0-2O0 

5.6-6.5 

Fattening  Pigs 

Weight   30-  501b. 
Weight   50-100  lb. 
Weight  100-150  lb. 
Weight  150-200  lb. 
Weight  200-250  lb. 
Weight  250-300  lb. 

46.2-51.0 
37.0-40.8 
32.4-35.8 
29.0-32.0 
i  25.5-28.1 
22.4-24.8 

7.8-8.5 
5.5-6.0 
4.4-4.9 
3.5-3.9 
3.0-3.4 
2.6-2.9 

41.0-45.4 
32.9-36.4 
28.8-31.9 
25.8-28.5 
22.7-25.0 
20.0-22.0 

4.0-4.5 
5.0-5.6 
5.5-6.2 
6.2-7.0 
6.5-7.3 
6.7-7.5 

Brood  Sows,  with  Pigs 

2OO-24.0  1  2.4-2.7 

18.0-21.0 

6.0-7.0 

APPENDIX 


359 


Table  34.     Armsby  Feeding  Standards 
For  Maintenance 


Cattle 

Horses 

Live  weight 

Digestible 
protein 

Net  energy 

Digestible 
protein 

Net  energy 

Lb. 
150 

250 

500 

750 

1000 

1250 

1500 

Lb. 
0.15 

0.20 
0.30 
0.40 
0.50 
0.60 
0.65 

Therms 

1.7 
2.4 

3.8 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 

7.9 

Lb. 

0.3 
0.4 
0.6 
0.8 
1.0 
1.2 
1.3 

Therms 

2.0 

2.8 
4.4 
5.8 
7.0 
8.1 
9.2 

Sheep 


Live  weight 

Digestible  protein 

Net  energy 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Therms 

20 

0.02 

0.30 

40 

0.05 

0.54 

60 

0.07 

0.71 

80 

0.09 

0.87 

100 

0.10 

1.00 

120 

0.11 

1.13 

140 

0.13 

1.25 

For  Growth 

Cattle 


Age 

Live  weight 

Digestible  protein 

Net  energy 

Months 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Therms 

3 

275 

1.10 

5.0 

6 

425 

1.30 

6.0 

12 

650 

1.65 

7.0 

18 

850 

1.70 

7.5 

24 

1000 

1.75 

8.0 

30 

1100 

1.65 

8.0 

860 


APPEXDIX 


Table  34.    Armsbt  Feeding  Standards. 
For  Growth 

Sheep 


(Continued) 


Age 

Live  Weight 

Digestible  Protein 

Net  Energy 

Months 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Therms 

6 

70 

0.30 

1.3 

9 

90 

0.25 

1.4 

12 

110 

0.23 

1.4 

15 

130 

0.23 

1.5 

18 

145 

0.22 

l.G 

For  Fattening' 

Cattle 


Live  weight 

Digestible 
protein 

Net  energy 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Therms 

250 

1.1 

2.4  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

425 

1.3 

3.4  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

500 

1.5 

3.8  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

650 

1.7 

4.5  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

750 

1.7 

5.0  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

850 

1.7 

5.4  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

1000 

1.8 

6.0+  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

1100 

1.7 

6.4  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

1250 

1.6 

7.0+  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

1500 

1.5 

7.9  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

Sheep 


40 

— 

0.54  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

60 



0.70  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

70 

0.30 

0.79  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

80 

0.28 

0.87  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

90 

0.25 

0.94  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

100 

0.24 

1.00+  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

110 

0.23 

1.06  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

120 

0.23 

1.13+  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

130 

0.23 

1.19+  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

140 

0.22 

1.25  +  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

145 

.    0.22 

1.28+  (3.5  X  daily  gain.) 

^  Modified  from  Armsby's  original  table  for  the  sake  of  simplicity. 


APPENDIX 


361 


Table  35. 


The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Dif- 
ferent Amounts  of  Feeds  ^ 


Lbs. 

Dry  Sub- 

Digestible 

Total 

Kind  of  Feed 

OF 

Feed 

stance 

Protein 

Nutriment' 

Succulent  Roughage 

Lh. 

Lh. 

Lh. 

Fodder  corn      .... 

1 

.207 

.010 

.138 

5 

1.035 

.050 

.690 

15 

3.105 

.150 

2.070 

20 

4.140 

.200 

2.760 

25 

5.175 

.250 

3.450 

30 

6.210 

.300 

4.140 

35 

7.245 

.3,50 

4.830 

40 

8.280 

.4(X) 

5.520 

Red  clover 

1 

.292 

.029 

.181 

5 

1.460 

.145 

.905 

15 

4.380 

.435 

2.715 

20 

5.840 

.580 

3.620 

25 

7.300 

.725 

4.525 

. 

30 

8.760 

.870 

5.430 

35 

10.220 

1.015 

6.335 

40 

11.680 

1.160 

7.240 

Alfalfa 

1 

.282 

.036 

.166 

5 

1.410 

.180 

.830 

10 

2.820 

.360 

1.660 

15 

4.230 

.540 

2.490 

20 

5.640 

.720 

3.320 

25 

7.050 

.900 

4.150 

30 

8.460 

1.080 

4.980 

- 

35 

9.870 

1.260 

5.810 

40 

11.280 

1.440 

6.640 

Green  sorghum     .     .     . 

1 

.206 

.006 

.129 

5 

1.030 

.030 

.645 

10 

2.060 

.060 

1.290 

15 

3.090 

.090 

1.935 

20 

4.120 

.120 

2.580 

1  Taken  from  Cornell  Agr.  Exp.  8ta.  Bui.  321. 

2  Digestible  protein  +  digestible  carbohydrates  +  2i  X  digestible  fat. 


362 


APPENDIX 


Table  35. 


The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients 
ENT  Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


[N  Differ- 


i    Lbs. 

Dry  Sub- 

Digestible 

Total 

Kind  of  Feed 

OF 

Feed 

stance 

Protein 

Nutriment 

N accident  Ro ughage.     (Con- 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

tinued) 

Green  sorghum 

25 

5.150 

.150 

3.225 

30 

6.180 

.180 

3.870 

35 

7.210 

.210 

4.515 

40 

8.240 

.240 

5.160 

Mangel  beets    .... 

1 

.091 

.010 

.070 

5 

.455 

.050 

.350 

10 

.910 

.100 

.700 

15 

1.365 

.150 

1.050 

20 

1.820 

.200 

1.400 

25 

2.275 

.250 

1.750 

30 

2.730 

.300 

2.100 

Sugar  beets      .... 

1 

.135 

.013 

.113 

5 

.675 

.065 

.565 

10 

1.350 

.130 

1.130 

15 

2.025 

.195 

1.695 

20 

2.700 

.260 

2.260 

25 

3.375 

.325 

2.825 

30 

4.050 

.390 

3.390 

Carrots 

1 

.114 

.008 

.092 

5 

.570 

.040 

.460 

10 

1.140 

.080 

.920 

15 

1.710 

.120 

1.380 

20 

2.280 

.160 

1.840 

25 

2.850 

.200 

2.300 

30 

3.420 

.240 

2.760 

Rutabagas  

1 

.114 

.010 

.096 

5 

.570 

.050 

.480 

10 

1.140 

.100 

.960 

15 

1.710 

.150 

1.440 

20 

2.280 

.200 

1.920 

25 

2.850 

.250 

2.400 

30 

3.420 

.300 

2.880 

APPENDIX 


P>G3 


Table  35. 


The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


Kind  op  Feed 

Lbs. 

OF 

Dry  Sub- 

Digestible 

Total 

Feed 

stance 

Protein 

Nutriment 

Succulent  Roughage.     (Con- 

1 

tinued) 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Corn  silage 

1 

.264 

.014 

.172 

5 

1.320 

.070 

.860 

10 

2.640 

.140 

1.720 

15 

3.960 

.210 

2.580 

20 

5.280 

.280 

3.440 

25 

6.600 

.350 

4.300 

30 

7.920 

.420 

5.160 

35 

9.240 

.490 

6.020 

40 

10.560 

.560 

6.880 

45  ■ 

11.880 

.630 

7.740 

50 

13.200 

.700 

8.600 

Dried  Roughage 

Timothy  hay    .... 

1 

.868 

.028 

.481 

4 

3.472 

.112 

1.924 

6 

5.208 

.168 

2.886 

8 

6.944 

.224 

3.848 

10 

8.680 

.280 

4.810 

12 

10.416 

.336 

5.772 

14 

12.152 

.392 

6.734 

16 

13.888 

.448 

7.696 

18 

15.624 

.504 

8.658 

20 

17.360 

.560 

9.620 

Red  clover  hay     .     . 

1 

.847 

.071 

.490 

4 

3.388 

.284 

1.960 

6 

5.082 

.426 

2.940 

8 

6.776 

.568 

3.920 

10 

8.470 

.710 

,     4.900 

12 

10.164 

.852 

5.880 

14 

11.858 

.994 

6.860 

16 

13.552 

1.136 

7.840 

18 

15.246 

1.278 

8.820 

20 

16.940 

1.420 

9.800 

364 


APPENDIX 


Table  35. 


The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


:_ . 



^ 

Lbs. 

Dry  Sub- 

Digestible 

Total 

Kind  of  Feed 

OP 

Feed 

stance 

Protein 

Nutriment 

Dried     Roughage.        (Con- 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

tinued) 

Alfalfa  hay 

1 

.918 

.105 

.530 

4 

3.672 

.420 

2.120 

G 

5.508 

.630 

3.180 

8 

7.344 

.840 

4.240 

10 

9.180 

1.050 

5.300 

12 

11.016 

1.260 

6.360 

14 

12.852 

1.470 

7.420 

16 

14.688 

1.680 

8.480 

18 

16.524 

1.890 

9.540 

20 

18.360 

2.100 

10.600 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 

1 

.871 

.058 

.505 

4 

3.484 

.232 

2.020 

6 

5.226 

.348 

3.030 

8 

6.968 

.464 

4.040 

10 

8.710 

.580 

5.050 

12 

10.452 

.696 

6.060 

14 

12.194 

.812 

7.070 

16 

13.936 

.928 

8.080 

18 

15.678 

1.044 

9.090 

20 

17.420 

1.160 

10.100 

Hungarian  liaj^      .     .     . 

1 

.923 

.045 

.590 

4 

3.692 

.180 

2.360 

6 

5.538 

.270 

3.540 

8 

7.384 

.360 

4.720 

10 

9.230 

.450 

5.900 

12 

11.076 

.540 

7.080 

14 

12.922 

.630 

8.260 

16 

14.768 

.720 

9.440 

:\Iillet  hay 

1 

.840 

.020 

.459 

4 

3.360 

.080 

1.836 

6 

5.040 

.120 

2.754 

8 

6.720 

.160 

3.672 

APPENDIX 


365 


Table  35. 


The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients 
ENT  Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


N  Differ- 


-  -- 

Lbs. 

Dry  Sub- 

Digestible 

Total 

Kind  op  Feed 

Feed 

stance 

Protein 

Nutriment 

Dried     Roughage.       (Con- 

Lh. 

Lb. 

Lh. 

tinued) 

Millet  hay 

10 

8.400 

.200 

4.590 

12 

10.080 

.240 

5.508 

14 

11.760 

.280 

6.426 

16 

13.440 

.320 

7.344 

Corn  fodder      .... 

1 

.578 

.025 

.398 

5 

2.890 

.125 

1.990 

8 

4.624 

.200 

3.184 

12 

6.936 

.300 

4.776 

15 

8.670 

.375 

5.970 

18 

10.404 

.450 

7.164 

20 

11.560 

.500 

7.960 

(^orn  stover       .... 

1 

.595 

.014 

.342 

5 

2.975 

.070 

1.710 

8 

4.760 

.112 

2.736 

12 

7.140 

.168 

4.104 

15 

8.925 

.210 

5.130 

18 

10.710 

.252 

6.156 

20 

11.900 

.280 

6.840 

Dried  sorghum      .     .     . 

1 

.889 

.027 

.457 

4 

3.556 

.108 

1.828 

6 

5.334 

.162 

2.742 

8 

7.112 

.216 

3.656 

10 

8.890 

.270 

4.570 

12 

10.668 

.324 

5.484 

14 

12.446 

.378 

6.398 

16 

14.224 

.432 

7.312 

18 

16.002 

.486 

8.226 

20 

17.780 

.540 

9.140 

Oat  straw 

1 

.908 

.013 

.426 

3 

2.724 

.039 

1.278 

5 

4.540 

.065 

2.130 

8 

7.264 

.104 

3.408 

3C6 


APPENDIX 


Table  35. 


The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


Kind  of  Feed 

Lbs. 

OF 

Feed 

Dry  Sub- 
stance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Total 

Nutriment 

Dried     Roughage.        (Con- 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

tinued) 

Oat  straw 

12 

10.896 

.156 

5.112 

15 

13.620 

.195 

6.390 

18 

16.344 

.234 

7.668 

Wheat  straw     .... 

1 

.904 

.008 

.369 

3 

2.712 

.024 

1.107 

5 

4.520 

.040 

1.845 

8 

7.232 

.064 

2.952 

12 

10.848 

.096 

4.428 

15 

13.560 

.120 

5.535 

18 

16.272 

.144 

6.642 

Concentrates 

Corn  (dent)      .... 

1 

.894 

.078 

.843 

2 

1.788 

.156 

1.686 

3 

2.682 

.234 

2.529 

4 

3.576 

.312 

3.372 

5 

4.470 

.390 

4.215 

6 

5.364 

.468 

5.058 

7 

6.258 

.546 

5.901 

8 

7.152 

.624 

6.744 

9 

8.046 

.702 

7.587 

Corn  and  cob  meal    .     . 

1 

.849 

.044 

.709 

2 

1.698 

.088 

1.418 

3 

2.547 

.132 

2.127 

4 

3.396 

.176 

2.836 

5 

4.245 

.220 

3.545 

6 

5.094 

.264 

4.254 

7 

5.943 

.308 

4.963 

8 

6.792 

.352 

5.672 

9 

7.641 

.396 

6.381 

Hominy  chop  .... 

1 

.904 

.068 

.840 

2 

1.808 

.136 

1.680 

3 

2.712 

.204 

2.520 

a. 

3.616 

.272 

3.360 

APPENDIX 


367 


Table  35.     The  AxMounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


Lbs. 

Dry  Sub- 

Digestible 

Total 

Kind  of  Feed 

OF 

Feed 

stance 

Protein 

Nutriment 

Concentrates.     (Continued) 

Lh. 

Lb. 

Lh. 

Hominy  chop  .... 

5 

4.520 

.340 

4.200 

6 

5.424 

.408 

5.040 

7 

6.328 

.476 

5.880 

8 

7.232 

.544 

6.720 

9 

8.136 

.612 

7.560 

Gluten  feed      .... 

1 

.908 

.213 

.806 

2 

1.816 

.426 

1.612 

3 

2.724 

.639 

2.418 

4 

3.632 

.852 

3.224 

5 

4.540 

1.065 

4.030 

6 

5.448 

1.278 

4.836 

7 

6.356 

1.491 

5.642 

8 

7.264 

1.704 

6.448 

9 

8.172 

1.917 

7.254 

Distillers'  dried  grains   . 

1 

.924 

.228 

.886 

2 

1.848 

.456 

1.772 

3 

2.772 

.684 

2.658 

4 

3.696 

.912 

3.544 

5 

4.620 

1.140 

4.430 

6 

5.544 

1.368 

5.316 

7 

6.468 

1.596 

6.202 

8 

7.392 

1.824 

7.088 

9 

8.316 

2.052 

7.974 

Oats 

1 

.896 

.088 

.675 

2 

1.792 

.176 

1.350 

3 

2.688 

.264 

2.025 

4 

3.584 

.352 

2.700 

5 

4.480 

.440 

3.375 

6 

5.376 

.528 

4.050 

7 

6.272 

.616 

4.725 

8 

7.168 

.704 

5.400 

9 

8.064 

.792 

6.075 

368 


APPENDIX 


Table  35. 


The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


Kind  op  Feed 

Lbs. 

Dry  Sub- 

Digestible 

Total 

Feed 

stance 

Protein 

Nutriment 

Concentrates.      (Continued) 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Wheat 

1 

.895 

.100 

.798 

2 

1.790 

.200 

1.596 

3 

2.685 

.300 

2.394 

4 

3.580 

.400 

3.192 

5 

4.475 

.500 

3.990 

G 

5.370 

.6(X) 

4.788 

7 

6.265 

.700 

5.586 

8 

7.160 

.8(M) 

6.384 

9 

8.055 

.900 

7.182 

Wheat  bran      .... 

1 

.881 

.119 

.595 

2 

1.762 

.238 

1.190 

3 

2.643 

.357 

1.785 

1 

3.524 

.476 

2.380 

5 

4.405 

.595 

2.975 

6 

5.286 

.714 

3.570 

7 

6.167 

.833 

4.165 

8 

7.048 

.952 

4.760 

9 

7.929 

1.071 

5.355 

Wheat  middlings  .     .     . 

1 

.900 

.169 

.797 

2 

1.800 

.338 

1.594 

3 

2.700 

.507 

2.391 

4 

3.600 

.676 

3.188 

5 

4.500 

.845 

3.985 

6 

5.400 

1.014 

4.782 

7 

6.300 

1.183 

5.579 

8 

7.200 

1.352 

6.376 

9 

8.100 

1.521 

7.173 

Red  dog  flour  .... 

1 

.915 

.162 

.809 

2 

1.830 

.324 

1.618 

3 

2.745 

.486 

2.427 

4 

3.660 

.648 

3.236 

5 

4.575 

.810 

4.045 

6 

5.490 

.972 

4.854 

7 

6.405 

1.134 

5.663 

8 

7.320 

1.296 

6.472 

9 

8.235 

1.458 

7.281 

APPENDIX 


369 


Table  35.     The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


Kind  of  Feed 

Lbs. 

OF 

Feed 

Dry  Sub- 
stance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Total 

Nutriment 

Concentrates.     (Continued) 

Lh. 

Lh. 

Lh. 

Barley 

1 

.892 

.084 

.773 

2 

1.784 

.168 

1.546 

3 

2.67G 

.252 

2.319 

4 

3.568 

.336 

3.092 

5 

4.460 

.420 

3.865 

6 

5.352 

.504 

4.638 

S 

6.244 

.588 

5.411 

7 

7.136 

.672 

6.184 

9 

8.028 

.756 

6.957 

Malt  sprouts    .... 

1 

.905 

.203 

.695 

2 

1.810 

.406 

1.390 

3 

2.715 

.609 

2.085 

4 

3.620 

.812 

2.780 

f) 

4.525 

1.015 

3.475 

6 

5.430 

1.218 

4.170 

7 

6.335 

1.421 

4.865 

8 

7.240 

1.624 

5.560 

9 

8.145 

1.827 

6.255 

Brewers'  wet  grains  .     . 

1 

.243 

.039 

.164 

•J 

1.215 

.195 

.820 

10 

2.430 

.390 

1.640 

15 

3.645 

.585 

2.460 

20 

4.860 

.780 

3.280 

25 

6.075 

.975 

4.100 

30 

7.290 

1.170 

4.920 

35 

8.505 

1.365 

5.740 

Brewers'  dried  grains     . 

1 

.913 

.200 

.657 

2 

1.826 

.400 

1.314 

3 

2.739 

.600 

1.971 

4 

3.652 

.800 

2.628 

5 

4.565 

1.000 

3.285 

6 

5.478 

1.200 

3.942 

7 

6.391 

1.400 

4.599 

8 

7.304 

1.600 

5.256 

9 

8.217 

1.800 

5.913 

.'^70 


APPENDIX 


Table  35.     The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds,     (Continued) 


Kind  of  Feed 

Lbs. 

OF 

Feed 

Dry  Sub- 
stance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Total 

Nutriment 

Concentrates.     (Continued) 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Rye 

1 

.913 

.095 

.815 

2 

1.82G 

.190 

1.630 

3 

2.739 

.285 

2.445 

4 

3.652 

.380 

3.260 

5 

4.565 

.475 

4.075 

G 

5.478 

.570 

4.890 

7 

6.391 

.665 

5.705 

8 

7.304 

.760 

6..520 

' 

8.217 

.855 

7.335 

Canada  field  peas      .     . 

1 

.850 

.197 

.699 

2 

1.700 

.394 

1.398 

3 

2.550 

.591 

2.097 

4 

3.400 

.788 

2.796 

5 

4.250 

.985 

3.495 

G 

5.100 

1.182 

4.194 

7 

5.950 

1.379 

4.893 

8 

6.800 

1.576 

5.592 

9 

7.650 

1.773 

6.291 

Cottonseed  meal  . 

1 

.930 

.376 

.806 

2 

1.860 

.752 

1.612 

3 

2.790 

1.128 

2.418 

4 

3.720 

1.504 

3.224 

5 

4.650 

1.880 

4.030 

6 

5.580 

2.256 

4.836 

7 

6.510 

2.632 

5.642 

8 

7.440 

3.008 

6.448 

9 

8.370 

3.384 

7.254 

Linseed  oil  meal    . 

1 

.902 

.302 

.777 

2 

1.804 

.604 

1.554 

3 

2.706 

.906 

2.331 

4 

3.608 

1.208 

3.108 

5 

4.510 

1.510 

3.885 

6 

5.412 

1.812 

4.662 

APPENDIX 


371 


Table  35. 


The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


Lbs. 

Dry  Sub- 

Digestible 

Total 

Kind  op  Fked 

OF 

Feed 

stance 

Protein 

Nutriment 

Concentrates.     (Continued) 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Linseed  oil  meal  .     .     . 

7 

6.314 

2.114 

5.439 

8 

7.216 

2.416 

6.216 

9 

8.118 

2.718 

6.993 

Buckwheat  middlings     . 

1 

.872 

.227 

.739 

2 

1.744 

.454 

1.478 

3 

2.616 

.681 

2.217 

4 

3.488 

.908 

2.956 

5 

4.360 

1.135 

3.695 

6 

5.232 

1.362 

4.434 

7 

6.104 

1.589 

5.173 

S 

6.976 

1.816 

5.912 

9 

7.848 

2.043 

6.651 

Culled  beans    .... 

1 

.859 

.226 

.759 

2 

1.718 

.452 

1.518 

3 

2.577 

.678 

2.277 

4 

3.436 

.904 

3.036 

5 

4.295 

1.130 

3.795 

6 

5.154 

1.356 

4.554 

7 

6.013 

1.582 

5.313 

8 

6.872 

1.808 

6.072 

9 

7.731 

2.034 

6.831 

Sugar  molasses      .     .     . 

1 

.741 

.014 

.606 

2 

1.482 

.028 

1.212 

3 

2.223 

.042 

1.818 

4 

2.964 

.056 

2.424 

5 

3.705 

.070 

3.030 

6 

4.446 

.084 

3.636 

7 

5.187 

.098 

4.242 

8 

5.928 

.112 

4.848 

^ 

6.669 

.126 

5.454 

Skimmed  milk       .     .     . 

1 

.094 

.029 

.089 

4 

.376 

.116 

.356 

6 

.564 

.174 

.534 

372 


APPENDIX 


Table  35.    The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


Kind  of  Feed 

Lbs. 

OP 

Feed 

Dry  Sub- 
stance 

Digestible 
Protein 

Total 
Nutriment 

Concentrates.     (Continued) 

Lh. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Skimmed  milk      .     .     . 

8 

.752 

.232 

.712 

10 

.940 

.290 

.890 

12 

1.128 

.348 

1.068 

14 

1.316 

.406 

1.246 

16 

1.504 

.464 

1.424 

18 

1.692 

.522 

1.602 

20 

1.880 

.580 

1.780 

22 

2.068 

.638 

1.958 

24 

2.256 

.696 

2.136 

Buttermilk 

1 

.098 

.038 

.100 

3 

.294 

.114 

.300 

5 

.490 

.190 

.500 

8 

.784 

.304 

.800 

10 

.980 

.380 

1.000 

12 

1.176 

.456 

1.200 

15 

1.470 

.570 

1.500 

18 

1.764 

.684 

1.800 

20 

1.960 

.760 

2.000 

25 

2.450 

.950 

2.500 

30 

2.940 

1.140 

3.000 

Wet  beet  pulp .... 

1 

.102 

.005 

.082 

5 

.510 

.025 

.410 

10 

1.020 

.050 

.820 

15 

1.530 

.075 

1.230 

20 

2.040 

.100 

1.640 

25 

2.550 

.125 

2.050 

30 

3.060 

.150 

2.460 

35 

3.570 

.175 

2.870 

40 

4.080 

.200 

3.280 

Dried  beet  pulp    .     .     . 

1 

.916 

.041 

.690 

2 

1.832 

.082 

1.380 

3 

2.748 

.123 

2.070 

4 

3.664 

.164 

2.760 

APPENDIX 


373 


Table  35.    The  Amounts  of  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Differ- 
ent Amounts  of  Feeds.     (Continued) 


Kind  of  Feed 

Lbs. 

OF 

Dry  Sub- 

Digestible 

Total 

Feed 

stance 

Protein 

Nutriment 

Concentrates.     (Continued) 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Dried  beet  pulp    .     .     . 

5 

4.580 

.205 

3.450 

6 

5.496 

.246 

4.140 

7 

•      6.412 

.287 

4.830 

8 

7.328 

.328 

5.520 

9 

8.244 

.369 

6.210 

J 


INDEX 


Numbers  refer  to  pages. 


Abomasum,  35-G 

digestion  in,  42-4 
Absorption  of  nutrients,  47-55 

work  of,  99-100 
Acid  in  gastric  juice,  41-2 
Adulteration  of  feeds,  223-6 
Age  of  animal,   influence  on  digesti- 
bility, 67 

efficiency  of  gains,  313-5 

fat  content  of  body,  28-9 

protein  content  of  body,  29-30 

value  of  manure,  3.  24 

water  content  of  body,  27 
Alfalfa  hay,  237-41 

composition,  239 

digestibility  of  protein  of,  64 
.  compared  with  clover,  237,  239 

curing,  239 

feeding  value,  239 

for  breeding  stock,  240 
fattening  stock,  240 
growing  stock,  239-40 
milk  cows,  241 
work  horses,  241 

ground,  see  Alfalfa  meal 

net  energy  value,  239 
Alfalfa  meal,  300-1 
Alfalfa  pasture,  272-3 
Alfalfa  silage,  294 
Alfalfa  soilage,  267-8,  269,  272 
Alfalfa  straw,  264-5 
Alimentary  tract,  34 
Alsike  clover,  see  Clover,  alsike 
Amides,  11 

Amino  acids,  absorption  of,  from  in- 
testine, 48,  51 

definition,  10 

end  products  of  oxidation  of,  81 

function  of,  in  animal  body,  81-2 


Amino  acids,  influence  on  animals  of 
rations  deficient  in,  11,  82-7 
in  large  intestine,  47,  52 
small  intestine,  45,  46,  51 
absorption,  48,  51 
Amount  of  feed,  how  determined  in 
compounding  rations,  112 
influence    of,    on    digestibility    of 
feedingstuffs,  72-3 
efficiency  of  grains,  307-9 
Amylase,  pancreatic,  44,  45,  53 

salivary,  39,  40,  41,  52-3 
Amylopsin,  see  Amylase,  pancreatic 
Animals,  see  Farm  animals 
Apple  pomace,  304 
Armsby's  energy  values  for  feeding- 
stuffs,  Appendix  Table  30 
feeding  standards,  124-8,  148,  149, 

Appendix  Table  34 
standard  for  dairy  cows  compared 
with  other  standards,   148 
Van    Norman    modification    of, 
128-9 
values   for  dry   substance,    digest- 
ible  protein   and   energy  in 
feeding      stuffs.      Appendix 
Table  31 
Artichokes,  299-300 
Ash,  see  Mineral  matter 
Assimilation,  see  Absorption 
Available  energy,  see    Metabolizable 
energy 

Bacteria,  action  in  digestion,  46-7,  52, 

53-4 
Bagasse,  sorghum,  for  silage,  295 
Balanced  ration,  119 

See  also  Ration 
Bales  of  hay,  weights  of,  115 


375 


37G 


INDEX 


Barley,  176-9 

composition,  176 

for  breeding  stock,  179 
fattening  stock,  178 
growing  stock,  177-8 
milk  cows,  179 
work  horses,  179 

net  energy  value,  176 

vs.  corn  for  pork   and    bacon   pro- 
duction, 176 

See  also  Cereals,  Feedingstuflfs 
Barley  by-products,  199  202 
Barley  hay,  254-5 
Barley  pasture,  284 
Barley  straw,  264 
lieans,  field,  186 

velvet,  see  Velvet  bean 
Beef  cattle,  see  Steers 
Beef    production    as    influenced    by 

grade  of  animal,  312-3 
Beet,  mangel,  see  Mangels 

sugar,  see  Sugar  beet 
Beet  molasses,  see  Molasses 
Beet  pulp,  228-9 
Beet  pulp  silage,  295 
Beet  tops,  304 
Beggar  weed  hay,  244 
Beggar  weed  pasture,  274 
Bermuda  grass,  250,  253 
Bermuda  hay,  250,  253 
Bermuda  pasture,  282 
Bile,  38,  44,  45-6,  54 
Bloat  in  farm  animals,  43 

how  prevented,  271,  302 
Blood  flour,  219 

Blood  meal  or  dried  blood,  218-9 
Bluegrass  pasture,  Canada,  281 

Kentucky,  278-80 
Body  temperature  of  farm  animals, 

103-5 
Body     weight      of      farm      animals, 
composition  of  increase  in, 
30-3 
Bomb  calorimeter,  93-5,  97 
Bone  meal,  raw,  219-20 

steamed,  220 
Bones  of  farm  animals,  influenced  by 
feed,  78,  79-80,  83,  84-6 

mineral  matter  in,  27,  28,  77 

water  in,  27 


Bran,  see  names  of  kinds  of  bran  as 

Wheat  bran 
Breed  or  type  of  animal,  influence  of, 
on  digestibility   of  feeding- 
stuffs,  67 
efficiency  of  gains,  312-3 
value  of  manure,  324 

value  in  beef  production,  312-3 
Breeding  stock,  alfalfa  hay  for,  240 

alfalfa  straw  for,  264-5 

barley  for,  179 

barley  straw  for,  264 

Canada  field  peas  for,  184 

carrots  for,  298 

corn  for,  164-5 

corn  silage  for,  292-3 

corn  stover  for,  261 

cottonseed  meal  or  cake  for,  212 

gluten  feed  for,  191 

Kentucky  bluegrass  for,  278 

linseed  meal  or  cake  for, -208-9 

mangels  for,  298 

oats  for,  172-3 

oat  straw  for,  264 

red  clover  hay  for,  236-7 

rye  for,  175 

rye  pasture  for,  283 

timothy  hay  for,  247 

wheat  bran  for,  196 

wheat  for,  169 

wheat  middlings  for,  198 
Brewers'  grains,  199-201 
Brome  grass,  253 
Brome  hay,  253 
Brome  pasture,  282-3 
Broom  corn  fodder,  260 
Buckwheat  by-products,  205 
Bull  and  Emmett  standard  of  protein 
requirements  for  lambs,  132-3 
Butter,  influence  of  coconut  meal  or 
cake  on,  215 

cottonseed  meal  or  cake  on,  212 

gluten  feed  on,  191 

linseed  meal  or  cake  on,  209 

rye  on,  173 

soybeans  on,  185 
Buttermilk,  229 

Cabbage,  302 
Caecum,  36 


INDEX 


377 


Calcium,  excretion  from  animal  body, 
78 

in  bodies  of  farm  animals,  28 

influence  on  pigs  of  ration  deficient 
in,  79-80 

required  for  growth,  78-80,  131 
Calcium  phosphate,  79 
Calorie,  93 
Calorimeter,  bomb,  93-5,  96,  97 

respiration,  96-7 
Calves 

(For  the  value  of  a  particular  feed 
for  calves,  see  name  of  feed) 

ash  of  feed  excreted  in  manure,  323 

composition  of  bodies,  26 
increase  in  body  weight,  32 

digestible  organic  matter  required 
for  1  lb.  of  gain,  315 

efficiency  of  gains,  315 

fat  in  bodies,  26,  28 

increase  in  body  weight,  composi- 
tion, 32 

manure  of,  ash  and  nitrogen  of  feed 
excreted  in,  323 

nitrogen  of  feed  excreted  in  manure, 
323 

protein  in  bodies,  26,  30 

rations  for,  110 

water  in  bodies,  26.  27 
Canada  blue  grass,  281 
Canada  field  pea,  183-4 
Cane  molasses,  227 
Cane  sugar,  13,  14 

digestion  of,  45,  46,  53 
Cannery  refuse  for  silage,  295 
Capacity    of    animal,    influence    on 

efficiency  of  gains,  315-6 
Capillaries,  48,  49,  50,  51,  52,  53,  54 
Carbohydrates,  13 

absorption  of,  88 

a  source  of  energy,  87-8 

composition  and  subclasses  of,  14 

fat  formed  from,  87-9 

function  in  animal  body,  87-9 

glycogen  formed  from,  87-8 

gross  energy  of,  95 

in  animal  body,  30 

influence  on  digestibility  of  excess 
of,  in  ration,  73-4 

net  energy  of,  101 


Carbohydrates,  should  be  limited  for 
breeding  stock,  131 

See  also  Crude  fiber  and  Nitrogen- 
free  extract 
Carbon  dioxide,  43,  54 
Carbonaceous  concentrates,  106 
Carbonic  acid  gas,  see  Carbon  dioxide 
Carrots,  298-9 
Casein,  42,  45,  51,  82 
Cassava,  300 

Cattle,  see  Steers,  Cow,  Cows,  dairy 
Cellulose,  13,  14,  16-7 

digestion  of,  43,  53 
Cereal  by-products,  188-205 

crude  fiber  in,  17-8 

crude  protein  in,  12-3 

fat  in,  22 

mineral  matter  in,  8 

nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 

water  in,  5-6 
Cereal  grains,  see  Cereals 
Cereals,  158-83 

crude  fiber  in,  17-8 

crude  protein  in,  12-3 

fat  in,  21-2 

mineral  matter  in,  8-9 

nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 

water  in,  5-6 
Chlorine  in  feedingstuffs,  8 
Chufas,  300 
Chyme,  44 
Climate,  influence  of,  on  efficiency  of 

rations,  319 
Clover,  alsike,  242,  273 

bloat  from,  how  prevented,  271 

crimson,  243,  274 

for  soilage,  267-8 

Japan,  see  Lespedeza 

mammoth,  241-2,  273 

red,  234,  270-2 

sweet,  242-3,  273 

white,  273 
Clover  hay,  alsike,  242 

crimson,  243 

Japan,  see  Lespedeza  hay 

mammoth,  241-2 

red,  234-7 

composition,  234 

energy  value,  234 

for  breeding  stock,  236-7 


378 


INDEX 


Clover  hay,  red,  for  fattening  stock, 
236 
growing  stock,  235-6 
milk  cows,  237 
work  horses,  237 
time  to  cut,  235 
sweet,  242-3 
Clover  pasture  and  soilage,  267-8 
alsike,  273 
crimson,  274 

Japan,  see  Lespedeza  pasture 
mammoth,  273 
red,  270-2 

bloat  from,  how  prevented,  271 
composition,  270-1 
net  energy  value,  271 
sweet,  273 
white,  273 
Clover  silage,  294 
Clover  straw,  264-5 
Coarse  forage,  see  Roughage 
Cocoa  shells.  230 
Coconut  meal  or  cake,  214-5 
Coefficients,  of  digestibility,  56-66 
definition,  56 
how  determined,  56-63 
indirect  method  of  calculating,  60-3 

errors  in,  62-3 
not  exact,  59-60 
of  crude  fiber,  65-6 
crude  protein,  64 
fat,  66 

feeds  that  cannot  be  fed  alone, 
how  determined,  60-3 
mineral  matter,  63-4 
nitrogen-free  extract,  64-5 
utilization  of  energy,  102-3 
Colts,  rations  for,  109 

(For  the  value  of  a  particular  feed 
for  colts,  see  name  of  feed) 
Combustion,  heat  of,  93-5 
Commercial  feeds,  223-6 

influence    of,    on     digestibility    of 

ration,  70-1 
standards  for  use  in  buying,  224-5 
Common  salt,  see  Salt 

vetch,  see  Vetch,  common 
Composition  of  farm  animals,  25-33 
feedingstuffs,      1-24,     Appendix 
Table  28 


Composition  of  farm  animals,  increase 
in  body  weight  of  farm  an- 
imals, 30-3 
meat-producing  animals,  26 
ration  as  affecting  its  efficiency, 

306-7 
steers,  26,  29 
Compounding  of  rations,  107-12 
Compounds,  2-3 

Concentrates,  average  weights  of,  114 
carbonaceous,  106 
compared  with  roughages  in  diges- 
tibility of : 
crude  fiber,  65 
crude  protein,  64 
fat,  66 

nitrogen-free  extract,  64-5 
estimating  weights  of,  112-3 
in  rations,  112-3 

proportion    of,     to    roughages    in 
ration  as  affecting  efficiency 
of  gains,  307 
valuation    of,    as    compared    with 

roughages,  332-3 
weights  of,  114 
Condition  of  animal,  influence  of,  on 
composition  of  body,  26 
digestibility,  67 
fat  content  of  body,  28 
mineral  content  of  body,  28 
protein  content  of  body,  30 
water  content  of  body,  27 
Cooking,    influence    of,    on    digesti- 
bility, 69 
efficiency  of  ration,  310 
Corn,  159-66 

a  fattening  feed,  161,  163 
by-products,  188-93 
composition  of,  161 
deficient    in    mineral    matter    and 

protein,  78-9,  83,  161 
dent,  160 
flint,  160 

for  breeding  stock,  164-5 
fattening  stock,  163-4 
growing  stock,  162-3 
milk  cows,  165 
work  horses,  165-6 
forms  in  which  fed,  161-2 
net  energy  value  of,  161 


INDEX 


379 


Corn,  for  silage,  290 
soft,  166 

source  of  starch  and  glucose,  188 

yellow  compared  with  white,  160-1 
Corn  bran,  191-2 
Corn  chop,  sec  Corn  meal 
Corn  fodder,  256-7 
Corn  fodder  silage,  289-94 
Corn  forage,  see  Corn  fodder,  Corn 

stover,  Corn  pasture 
Corn  gluten  feed,  see  Gluten  feed 
Corn   meal,    see    Corn    oil    or    germ 

meal 
Corn  molasses,  see  Molasses 
Corn  oil,  20 

Corn  oil  or  germ  meal,  192 
Corn  pasture,  284-6 
Corn  silage,  see  Silage,  corn 
Cornstalk  disease,  284-5 
Cornstarch,  13 
Corn  stover,  261-2 
Cost  of  feeds   considered  in  formu- 
lating rations,  330-3 
Cotton  seed,  187 
Cottonseed  by-products,  210-3 
Cottonseed  cake,  see  Cottonseed  meal 

or  cake 
Cottonseed  feed,  213-4 
Cottonseed-hull  bran,  214 
Cottonseed  hulls,  214 
Cottonseed  meal  or  cake,  210-13 

cold  pressed,  213 

composition  of,  210 

dangerous  for  hogs,  211,  212 

for  breeding  stock,  212 
fattening  stock,  211-2 
growing  stock,  211 
milk  cows,  212 

work  horses,  212-3 

grades  of,  211 

makes  hard  butter,  212 

net  energy  value  of,  210 
Cottonseed  oil,  20 
Cow,  large  intestine  of,  37 

manure  excreted  by,  per  year,  321 

saliva  secreted  by,  40 

salivary  glands  of,  38 

small  intestine  of,  36 

stomach  of,  35-6 

See  also  Cows,  dairy 


Cowpea,  184 
Cowpea  hay,  244-5 
Cowpea  pasture,  275,  277 
Cowpea  silage,  294 
Cowpea  straw,  265-6 
Cows,  dairy 

(For  the  value  of  a  particular  feed 
for  dairy  cows,  see  name  of 
feed) 
Armsby  feeding  standards  for,  124- 

5,  148 
breed  of,  as  affecting  requirements 

for  milk  production,  147 
calculating  rations  for,  126-8,  129, 

142,  144-5,  145 
climate    as    affecting   efficiency   of 

rations  of,  319 
Eckle's  feeding  standards  for,  147- 

8 
exercise  for,  316 
grinding  feed  for,  309-10 
Haecker's    feeding    standards    for, 

140-1,  148 
mineral  matter  of  feed  excreted  by, 

322,  323n 
products  of,  per  100  lbs.  digestible 

organic  matter,  311 
rations  for,  calculating,  126-8,  129, 
142,  144-5,  145 
examples  of,  110 
size  of,  309 
requirements  for  milk  production, 
139-48 
Savage  feeding  standards  for,  142-5, 
148 
shelter  for,  319 
shredding  corn  stover  for,  310 
size  of  ration  for,  309 
temperature  as  affecting  efficiency 

of  rations  of,  319 
Van    Norman    feeding    standards 

for,  128-9 
Woll  and  Humphrey  feeding  stand- 
ards for,  145-6,  148 
Cracklings,  219 

Crimson  clover,  see  Clover,  crimson 
Crops  for  the  silo,  287-95 
Crude  fiber,  see  Fiber 
Crude  protein,  see  Protein,  crude 
Cud,  chewing  the,  42-3 


m 


JXDEX 


Dent  corn.  160 
Dextrin.  14 

Dietrich's  feeding  standard  for  grow- 
ing pigs.  133 
market  hogs,  137 
Digestibility,  56-75 
coefficients  of,  56-66 
definition.  56 
how  determined,  56-63 
indirect  method    of    calculating, 
60-3 
errors  in,  62-3 
not  exact,  59-60 
of  crude  fiber,  65-6 
crude  protein,  64 
fat,  66 
feeds  that  cannot  be  fed  alone, 

how  determined.  60-3 
mineral  matter,  63-4 
nitrogen-free  extract.  64-5 
influence  of  addition  of  nitrogenous 
nutrients  to  ration  on,  74 
age  of  animal  on,  67 
amounts  of  feed  on,  72-3 
breed  of  animal  on,  67 
condition  of  animal  on,  67 
cooking  of  feeds  on,  69 
curing  of  feeds  on,  71 
excess    of    non-nitrogenous    nu- 
trients in  ration  on.  73 
fermenting  of  feeds  on,  69 
frequency  of  feeding  and  water- 
ing animals  on,  70 
grinding  feed  on,  69-70 
individuality  of  animals  on,  68 
palatability  of  ration  on,  68-9 
patent  stock  feeds  on.  70-1 
preparation  of  feeds  on,  69-70 
proportion    of    different    nutri- 
ents in  ration  on,  73-4 
salton,  71 

soaking  of  feeds  on,  69 
species  of  animal  on,  67-8 
stage    of    growth    of    plant    on, 

71-2 
storage  of  feeds  on,  72 
sweating  of  feeds  on,  69 
work  of  animal  on,  67-8 
of  crude  fiber,  65  (1 
crude  protein,  64 


Digestibility,  of  fat.  66 

feedingstuffs.     56-66,    Appendix 

Tables  29,  30,  31.  35 
mineral  matter,  63-4 
nitrogen-free  extract,  64  5 
relation  of,  to  efficiency  of  ration, 
307 
value  of  manure,  323 
Digestible  nutrients,  in  feedingstuffs, 
74-5,  Appendix  Tables  29, 
30,  31,  35 
j-ield   of,    per   acre  by   grains  and 
seeds,  159 
Digestion,  40-7 

energy  expended  in,  99-100 
in  large  intestine,  46-7 
mouth,  40-1 
small  intestine.  44-6 
stomach.  41-4 
of  crude  fiber,  53-4 
fat,  54-5 

mineral  matter,  51 
nitrogen-free  extract,  52-3 
nutrients,  40-55 
protein,  51-2 
organs  of,  34-8 
work  involved  in,  99-100 
Digestion  coefficients,  56-66 
definition.  56 
how  determined.  56-63 
indirect    method     of     ctdculating, 
60-3 
errors  in,  62-3 
not  exact,  59-60 
of  crude  fiber,  65-6 
crude  protein,  64 
fat,  66 
feeds  that  cannot  be  fed  alone, 

how  determined,  60-3 
feedingstuffs,  56-66 
mineral  matter,  63-4 
nitrogen-free  extract,  64-5 
Digestion    experiments,    methods    of 

conducting,  56-8 
Digestive   system   of   farm    animals, 

34-8 
Distillers'  grains,  192-3 
Distillers'  slop.  192 
Dried  beet  pulp.  228  9 
Dried  blood,  218-9 


INDEX 


381 


Dried  brewers'  grains,  200-1 
Dried  distillers'  grains,  192-3 

Eckles'   feeding  standards  for  dairy 

cows,  147-8 
Economy  in  feeding  livestock,  331-5 
Efficiency  of  rations,  305-19 

influence    of    age    of    animal    on, 
313-5 
capacity  of  animal  on,  316 
climate  on,  319 
digestibility  of  ration  on,  307 
species  of  animal  on,  310-2 
temperature  conditions  on,  319 
type  of  animal  on,  312-3 
Egyptian  corn,  see  Milo  maize 
Elements,  1-2 
Emmer,  179 
Energy,  93-106 

Armsby's   values   for,    in   feeding- 
stuffs,  Appendix  Table  31 
available,  see  Metabolizable 
bomb  calorimeter  for  determining, 

93-5,  96,  97 
carbohydrates  a  source  of,  87,  88 
coefficient  of  utilization  of,  102-3 
derived  from  the  sun,  92-3 
expended  in  digestion  and  absorp- 
tion of  nutrients,  99-100 
heat  production,  100,  103-5 
vital  processes,  98-100 
fat  a  source  of,  89 
gross,  93-5,  95-6 

how  determined,  93-5 
of  nutrients,  95 
in    feedingstuffs,     105,     Appendix 
Table  31 
how  determined,  93-5,  96-7 
nutrients,  95,  101 
kinds  of,  92 
kinetic,  92-3 
losses  of,  95,  100,  103-4 
measurement  of,  93 
metabolizable,  95-8 
definition,  95 
how  determined,  96-7 
uses  of,  in  animal  body,  97-8 
net,  100-1 

definition,  100 

how  determined,  101 


Energy,    net,    in    feedingstuffs,    105, 
Appendix  Table  31 
nutrients,  101 
recovered  in  work,  103 
required  for  work  of  voluntary 
muscles,  101-2 
of    animal    body    compared    with 
steam  engine,  92-3,  100,  103 
ration  liberated  in  heat  by  steers, 
100 
potential,  92-3 
protein  a  source  of,  80,  81 
required  for  work  of  digestion  and 
absorption,  99-100 
heat  production,  103-5 
vital  processes,  98-100 
voluntary  muscles,  101-2 
respiration   calorimeter   for   deter- 
mining, 96-7,  101 
storage  of,  105 
units  of  measurement  of,  93 
utilization  of,  coefficients,  102-3 
Energy   values    of   feeds,    Armsby's, 

105,  Appendix  Table  31 
Engine  compared  with  animals,  92-3, 

100, 103 
Ensilage,  see  Silage 
Ensiling,    method    by    which    green 

fodder  is  preserved  by,  287 
Enterokinase,  46 
Enzymes,  38-40 
Erypsin,  44-5,  46 
Esophagus,  34,  41 
Ether  extract,  see  Fat 
Ewes,  concentrates  and  roughage  for, 
112 
(For  the  value  of  a  particular  feed 
for  ewes,  see  name  of  feed) 
Excrement,  see  Manure 
Exercise    for    fattening    stock    and 

dairy  cows,  316 
Exposure,  influence  of,  on  efficiency 
of  rations,  319 

Farm  animals,  absorption  of  nutrients 
by,  47-9,  50-5 
age    of,    as    affecting    digestibility 
of  rations,  67 
efficiency  of  rations,  313-5 
value  of  manure,  324 


382 


INDEX 


Farm  animals,  ash  in  bodies  of,  26, 

27-8 
of  feed  excreted  in  manure  of, 
323 
breed  of,  as  affecting  digestibility 

of  rations,  67 
capacity  of,  as  affecting  efficiency 

of  rations,  315-6 
carbohydrates  in  bodies  of,  30 
composition  of  bodies  of,  25-33 
increase    in     body    weight     of, 
30-3 
compounding  of  rations  for,  107-12 
condition  of,   as  affecting  digesti- 
bility of  ration,  67 
digestion    of    nutrients    by,    40-7, 

50-5 
digestive  systems  of,  34-8 
efficiency  of  gains  of,  305-19 
energy,  use  of,  by,   92-3,   97-100, 

101-5 
fat  in  bodies  of,  26,  28-9 
feed  requirements  of,  119-49 
feeding     standards     for,      119-29, 
130,    131-4,    136-8,    139-49, 
Appendix  Tables 
grade    of,    as    affecting    efficiency 

of  rations,  312-3 
heat  production  in  bodies  of,  103-5 
individuality    of,    as    affecting    di- 
gestibility of  ration,  68 
increase  in  body  weight  of,   com- 
position, 30-3 
manure  voided  by,  per  year,  321 
mineral   matter  in   bodies   of,    26, 
27-8 
of  feed  excreted  in  manure  of, 
323 
nitrogen     of      feed      excreted     in 

manure  of,  323 
phosphorus    of    feed     excreted   in 

manure  of,  323 
protein  in  bodies  of,  26,  29-30 
rations  for,  compounding  of,  107- 

12 
requirements  for  fattening,  135-7 
growth,  130-4 
maintenance,  129-30 
pregnancy,  134 
self-feeders  for,  152-0 


Farm  animals,  species  of,  as  affecting 
digestibility  of  rations,  66-7 
efficiency  of  rations,  310-2 
value  of  manure,  324-5 
storage  of  energy  by,  105 
temperament  of,   as  affecting  effi- 
ciency of  rations,  316 
treatment  of,  as  affecting  efficiency 

of  rations,  316-7 
type  of,   as  affecting  efficiency  of 

rations,  312-3 
water  in  bodies  of,  26-7 
work  of,   as  affecting  digestibility 
of  rations,  67-8 
Farm  manure,   see  Manure 
Fat,  18-21 

absorption  of,  49,  54-5 

a  source  of  muscular  energy  and 

body  fat,  88,  89 
composition  of,  18-9 
digestibility  of,  66 
digestion  of,  42,  45,  46,  54-5 
energy    values    of,     as    compared 

with  other  nutrients,  19 
function  in  animal  body,  89 
gross  energy  of,  95 
in     animal     body     formed     from 
carbohydrates   of   feed,    87, 
88-9 
crude  protein  of  feed,  81 
fat  of  feed,  89 
bodies  of  farm  animals,  26,  28-9 
feedingstuffs,  21-2 

how  determined,  21 
increase  in  body  weight,  30-3 
soap  making,  20,  45 
vegetable  substances,  18 
net  energy  value  of,  101 
wool,  20 
Fattening,    composition    of    increase 
during,  31-3 
factors  affecting,  306-19 
influence    of    age    of    animal    on, 
313-5 
amount  of  ration  on,  307-9 
capacity  of  animal  on,  315-6 
climatic  conditions  on,  319 
composition  of  ration  on,  306-7 
digestibility  of  ration  on,  307 
grade  of  animal  on,  312-3 


INDEX 


383 


Fattening,  influence  of  length  of  fat- 
tening period  on,  317-8 
preparation  of  ration  on,  309-10 
previous    treatment    of    animal 

on,  316-7 
species  of  animal  on,  310-2 
temperament  of  animal  on,  316 
temperature  on,  319 
type  of  animal  on,  312-3 
object  of,  31 

requirements  of  animals  for,  315-7 
Fattening  period,  length  of,  as  affect- 
ing    efficiency     of     rations, 
317-8 
Fattening  process,  what  it  is,  31 
Fatty  tissues,  storage  of,  see  Fatten- 
ing 
Feces,  47 

energy  lost  in,  95 
Feed,  amounts  of,  how  determined, 
112-3 
influence  of,  on  digestibility  of 

ration,  72-3 
efficiency  of  ration,  307-8 
influence    of    preparation    of,    on 
digestibility   of   ration,    09- 
70,  72-3 
efficiency  of  ration,  309-10 
See  also  Feedingstuffs 
Feed  adulteration,  223-0 
Feeding  standards,  119-49,  151-2 
for  dairy  cows,  comparison  of,  148 
Eckles,  147-8 
Haecker's,  148 
Hansson's,  151-2 
Savage's,  142-5 
Van  Norman's,  128-9 
Woll-Humphrey,  145-6 
for  farm  animals,  120-1,  124,  125-6 
Armsby's,       125-6,       Appendix 

Table  34 
Henry-Morrison,  124,  Appendix 

Table  33 
Wolff-Lehmann,       120-1,       Ap- 
pendix Table  32 
for  horses,  Kellner,  138 

Savage,  134 
for    lambs,    BuU-Emmett,    132-3, 

136 
for  pigs,  Dietrich's,  133,  137 


Feeding  stuffs,  157-304 
adulteration  of,  223-6 
coefficients  of  digestibility  of,  56- 

75 
commercial  values  of,  as  fertilizers, 

327-9 
composition    of,     1-24,    Appendix 

Tables  28,  29,  30,  31,  35 
crude  fiber  in,  17-8 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
digestibility  of,  56-75 
digestible  nutrients  in,   74-5,  Ap- 
pendix Tables  29,  30,  31,  35 
dry  substance  in,  Appendix  Tables 

29,  30,  31,  35 
energy    values    of,     93-7,     100-1, 

105-6,  Appendix  Table  31 
fat  in,  21-2 

fertilizing  values  of,  320-9 
gross  energy  of,  93-5 
metabolizable  energy  of,  95-7 
mineral  matter  in,  7-9 
net  energy  of,  100-1,  105,  Appendix 

Table   31 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,   15-6 
nutrients  in,  2-3,  Appendix  Tables 

29,  30,  31,  35 
valuation  of,  330-3 
vitamines  in,  22-4 
water  in,  4-6 
See  also  Feed 
Feeds,    commercial,    see   Commercial 

feeds 
Feed  unit  system  of  calculating  ra- 
tions, 149-52 
Fermentation,    influence    of,    on    di- 
gestibility   of    feedingstuffs, 
69 
value  of  manure,  326-7 
in  large  intestine,  47,  52,  53 
stomach,  43,  53-4 
Ferments,  see  Enzymes 
Fertility,  buying  with  feeds,  320-1 
Fertilizers,  essential  elements  of,  320 
Fertilizing    values    of    feedingstuffs, 

320-9 
Feterita,  258,  260 
Feterita  fodder,  258,  260 
Feterita  silage,  294-5 
Feterita  stover,  262 


384 


INDEX 


Fiber,  14,  16-7 

absorption    of    digestion  —  prod- 
ucts of,  48 

digestibilit>-  of,  65-6 

digestion  of,  43,  47,  53 

how    determined    in    feedingstuffs, 
17 

in  feedingstufTs,  17-8 
Fibrin,  45,  51 

Field  bean,  see  Bean,  Field 
Field  pea,  Canada,  183-4 
Finish  in  fattening  animals,  30S-9 
Flax  by-product,  209 
Flax  feed,  209 
Flax  oil  feed,  209-10 
Flax  screenings,  209 
Flaxseed,  187 

Flaxseed  by-product,  206-9 
Flax  straw,  264 
Flint  corn,  160 
Flour,  blood,  219 

red  dog,  198-9 
Foals,  rations  for,  109 

(For    the    value    of    a    particular 
feed  for  foals,  see  name  of 
feed) 
Fodder,  corn,  256-7 
Fodders,  256-62 

crude  fiber  in,  17-8 

crude  protein  in,  12-3 

fat  in,  22 

mineral  matter  in,  8 

nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 

water  in,  5 
Forage,  coarse,  see  Roughage 
Forage  crops,  266-7 
Frequency  of  feeding  and  watering, 
influence  of,  on  digestibility 
of  ration,  70 
Frosted  corn,  166,  290 
Fructose,  14,  45,  46,  53 
Fruit  sugar,  14,  45,  46,  53 
Fuel  value  of  feeds,  see  Energy 

Gain  in   farm   animals,    composition 

of,  30-3 
Galactose,  45,  46,  53 
Gallbladder,  38,  45 
Gasoline     engines     compared     with 

farm  animals,  102 


Gastric  juice,  41 
Gastric  lipase,  42,  54 
Gelatine,  45,  51 
Ciliadin,  87 
Glucose,  13,  14 

absorption  of,  48,  49,  53,  88 
composition  of,  19 
formed  in  digestion,  45,  46,  53 
in  animal  body,  30,  88 
manufacture  of,  188-90 
Gluten  feed,  190 
composition  of,  190 
for  breeding  stock,  191 
fattening  stock,  191 
growing  stock,  190-1 
milk  cows,  191 
work  horses,  191 
net  energy  value  of,  190 
Gluten  meal,  190 

Glycerin,  absorption  of,  in  intestine, 
49,  54-5 
in  fats,  19 

set   free   in   digestion   of   fats,    42, 
45,  54-5 
in  saponification  of  fats,  20 
Glycogen,  13 

carbohydrates    a     source    of,    87, 

88 
crude  protein  a  source  of,  81 
stored  in  animal  body,  30,  88 
Grade    of    animal,    influence    of,    on 
efficiency  of  rations,  312-3 
Grain,  salvage,  229 
Grains,  157-87 
brewers',  200-1 
distillers',  192-3 
gross  energy  value  of,  95 
influence  of  grinding  and  soaking, 
on  digestibility,  69-70 
efficiency  of  ration,  309-10 
yeast  or  vinegar-dried,  231 
Grape  sugar,  see  Glucose 
Grasses,  277-86 
Grass  hays,  246-55 
crude  fiber  in,  17-8 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
fat  in,  21-2 
mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 
water  in,  5 


INDEX 


385 


Grass  pastures,  277-86 
crude  fiber  in,  18 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
fat  in,  21-2 
mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 
water  in,  5 
Grinding  feed,  influence  of,  on  digest- 
ibility, 69-70 
efficiency  of  ration,  309-10 
Gross  energy,  93-5 
Ground  rock  phosphate  for  pigs,  79 
Growth,  of  animals,   composition  of 
increase  during,  30-3 
mineral  requirements  for,  78-80 
protein  requirements  for,  80-7 
requirements  for,  130-4 
of    plants,    influence    of    stage    of, 
on  digestibility,  71-2 
Gullet,  34,  41 

Haecker  feeding  standard  for   dairy 
cows,  140-2,  148 
growing  fattening  cattle,  131-2 
Hair\'  vetch,  245-6,  277 
Hansson  feeding  standard  for  dairy 

cows,  151-2 
Hay,  measurement  of,  115-7 
Hay    bales,    estimating    weights    of, 

115-7 
Hays,  232-55 

crude  fiber  in,  12-3 

crude  protein  in,  12-3 

digestion    by    different    species    of 

animals,  67 
fat  in,  21-2 
grass,  246-55 
gross  energy  of,  95 
leguminous,  232-46 
losses  in  curing,  72 
mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 
water  in,  5 
Hay    stacks,    estimating   cubic    con- 
tents of,  115-7 
Heat,  a  form  of  energy,  92 

controlling    loss    of,    from     body, 

104-5 
equalization  of,  in  body,  103-5 
escape  of,  from  body,  103-4 

2c 


Heat,  how  produced  in  body,  103-5 
losses    from    body,    99-100,     102, 

103-4 
lost  in  digestion,  99-100,  102 
measurement  of,  93 
of  body,  increased  by  work,  102 
of  combustion,  93-5 
production  of,  in  body,  103-5 
Heating  water  for  farm  animals,  104 
Henry-Morrison    feeding    standards, 

124,  Appendix  Table  33 
Herd's  grass,  see  Timothy 
Hogs 

(For    the    value    of    a    particular 

feed  for  hogs,  see  name  of 

feed) 
composition  of  bodies  of,  26 
concentrates  for,  111-2 
cooking  feed  for,  310 
Dietrich's     feeding     standard     for 

fattening,  137 
digestible  nutrients  in  feeding  stuffs 

for.  Appendix  Table  30 
digestion  experiments  with,  58 
digestion  harness  for,  57 
digestion  of  roughages  by,  67,  312 
fat  in  bodies  of,  26,  28 
fertilizing  elements  in  manure  of, 

325 
grinding  grain  for,  309-10 
influence  of  patent  stock  foods  on 

digestibility  of  rations  for, 

71 
preparation  of  feeds  on  efficiency 

of  rations  for,  309-10 
large  intestines  of,  37 

digestion  in,  46-7 
maintenance  requirements  of,   130 
manure  excreted  by,  per  year,  321 
mastication    by,    41 
mineral  matter  in  bodies  of,  26,  28 
products  of,  per  100  lbs,  digestible 

organic  matter,  311 
protein  in  bodies  of,  26,  30 
relation  of  weights  of,  to  efficiency 

of  gains,  314 
requirements  for  fattening,  137 
roughages  for,  111-2 
self-feeders  for,  153-5 
shelter  for,  105 


386 


INDEX 


Hogs  —  Continued 

small  intestines  of,  36 
stomach  of,  34-5 

total  dry  substance  and  digestible 
nutrients     in     feedingstuffs 
for,  Appendix  Table  30 
water  in  bodies  of,  26,  27 
See  also  Pigs 
Hominy  chop,  193 
Hominy  feed,  193 
Hominy  meal,  193 
Honeycomb,  see  Reticulum 
Horses 

(For  the  value  of  a  particular  food 

for  horses,  see  name  of  feed) 

ash  of  feed  excreted  in  manure  by, 

323 
caecum  of,  36-7 
calculating     rations    for,     109-10, 

121-3 
chaffing  hay  for,  310 
concentrates  for,  109-10 
digestible     nutrients     in     feeding- 
stuffs  for,  Appendix  Table  29 
digestion    of    roughages    by,     67, 

138-9 
digestive  tract  of,  39 
fertilizing  elements  in  manure  of. 

325 
grade  of,  as  affecting  efficiency  of 

rations,  313 
grinding  grains  for,  69-70,  309,  310 
Kellner  feeding  standard  for  work- 
ing, 138 
large  intestines  of,  36-7 

digestion  in,  46-7 
Uver  of,  38 

maintenance  requirements  of,   130 
manure,      amount     excreted     per 
year  by,  321 
ash  of  feed  excreted  in,  323 
fertilizing  elements  in,  325 
influence    of    exposure    and    fer- 
mentation on,  326 
nitrogen  of  feed  excreted  in,  323 
mastication  by,  41 
nitrogen  of  feed  excreted  in  manure 

by,  323 
net   energy    of    feed    recovered    in 
work  by,  305 


Horses  —  Continued 

rations    for,     calculating,     109-10, 

121-3 
requirements    of,    for   growth,   134 
maintenance,  130 
work,  138-9 
roughages  for,  109-10 

digestion  of,  67,  138-9 
saliva  secreted  by,  40 
Savage      feeding      standard       for 

growth,  134 
self-feeders  for,  156 
shelter  for,  105,  319 
small  intestines  of,  36 
stomach  of,  34-5 

total    dry    substance    and    digest- 
ible    nutrients    in     feeding- 
stuffs  for,  Appendix  Tabic  29 
type  of,   as  affecting  efficiency  of 

rations,  313 
work  of,   as  affecting  digestibility 
of  rations,   68 
net  energy  value  of  feeds  recov- 
ered in,  305 
requirements  for,  137-9 
Hungarian  grass,  see  Millet 
Hvdrochloric    acid   in    gastric    juice, 

41-2 
Hydrogen   sulphide  formed   in   large 
intestine,  47,  52 


weight    of    farm 
composition      of. 


influence 


Increase    in    body 

animals, 

30-3 
Indian  corn,  see  Corn 
Individuality    of    animals, 
of,  on  digestibility,  68 
Indol,  47,  52 

Inorganic  compounds,  2-3 
Inorganic    phosphate,    see    Calcium 

phosphate 
Intestinal  juice,  44,  46 
Intestine,  large,  36-7 

digestion  in,  46-7 
Intestine,  small,  36 
digestion  in,  44-6 
Invertin,  see  Sucrase 
Iron    a  feedingstuffs,  7 
Italian  rye  grass,  253-4 
Italian  rye  grass  hay,  253-4 


INDEX 


38? 


Japan  clover,  sec  Lespedeza 
Jerusalem  artichokes,  299-300 
Johnson  grass,  253 
Johnson  grass  hay,  253 
Johnson  grass  pasture,  282 
June  grass,  see  Bluegrass 

Kafir  corn,  182,  258-60 

Kafir  corn  fodder,  258-60 

Kafir  corn  silage,  294-5 

Kafir  corn  stover,  262 

Kale,  303-4 

Kellner   feeding    standard    for   work 

horses,  138 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  278-80 
Kinetic  energy,  93-4 
Kohlrabi,  303 
Kowliang,  182 
Kowliang  fodder,  260 
Kowliang  stover,  262 

Labor,  see  Work 
Lactase,  44 

action  of,  on  lactose,  45,  46,  53 
Lactose,  13,  14 

action  of  lactase  on,  45,  46,  53 
in  milk,  52 
Lambs 

(For    the    value    of    a    particular 
feed  for  lambs,  see  name  of 
feed) 
Bull-Emmett  standard  for  fatten- 
ing, 136 
growing,  132-3 
calculating  rations  for,  112 
composition  of  bodies  of,  26 
concentrates  for,  112 
fat  in  bodies  of,  26,  28 
grinding  grains  for,  70,  310 
mineral  matter  in  bodies  of,  26 
protein  in  bodies  of,  26,  30 

requirements  for  fattening,  136 
growth,  132-3 
rations  for,  calculating,  112 
roughages  for,  112 
water  in  bodies  of,  26,  27 
See  also  Sheep 
Lanolin,  20 
Large  intestine,  36-7 
digestion  in,  46-7 


Leaching,   influence  of,   on   value  of 

manure,  326-7 
Legumes,  270-7 
Leguminous  hays,  232-46 
crude  fiber  in,  17-8 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
fat  in,  22 

mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  16 
water  in,  5 
Leguminous  pastures,  270-7 
Leguminous  seeds,  183-6 
crude  fiber  in,  17-8 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
fat  in,  22 

mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,    15-6 
water  in,  5 
Length  of  fattening  period,  influence 
of,  on  efficiency  of  rations, 
317-8 
Lespedeza  hay,  243-4 

pasture,  274 
Lime,  see  Calcium 

Lime  phosphate,  see  Calcium  phos- 
phate 
Linseed   cake,   see   Linseed   oil   meal 

or  cake 
Linseed  meal,   see  Linseed   oil  meal 

or  cake 
Linseed  oil,  20 

Linseed  oil  meal  or  cake,  206-9 
composition  of,  207 
for  breeding  stock,  208-9 
fattening  stock,  208 
growing  stock,  208 
milch  cows,  209 
work  horses,  209 
net  energy  value  of,  207 
new  process,  207 
old  process,  206 
Lipase,  gastric,  42,  54 

pancreatic,  44,  45,  46,  54 
Liquid  manure,  influence  of  loss  of, 
on  value  of  manure,  325-6 
Liver,  37,  38,  45 

glycogen  stored  in,  30 

Magnesium,  in  animal  body,  28 
feedingstuffs,  7 


388 


INDEX 


Maintenance  ration,  129 
Maintenance    requirements    of    farm 

animals,  129-30 
Maize,  see  Corn 
Maltase,  41 

action  of,  on  maltose,  41,  45,  46, 
53 
Maltose,  14 

action  of  maltase  on,  41,  45,  46,  53 
formed    by    action    of    saliva    on 
starch,  40 
Malt  sprouts,  202 
Malt  sugar,  see  Maltose 
Mammoth   clover,  see  Clover,  mam- 
moth 
Mangels,  297-8 
Mangelwiarzels,  297-8 
Manure,    amounts    voided    by    farm 
animals  per  year,  321 
ash  of  feed  excreted  in,   by  farm 

animals,    322-3 
barnyard,  benefits  soil,  320-1 
care  of,  to  prevent  loss,  327 
factors  affecting  value  of,  324-7 
fertilizing  elements  in,  325 
influence  of  age  of  animal  on  value 
of,  324 
feeds  of  ration  on,  324 
fermentation  on,  326 
leaching  on,  326 
species  of  animal  on,  324-5 
losses,  325-6 

nitrogen   of   feed   excreted    in,    by 
farm  animals,  322-3 
Manurial     value     of     feedingstuffs, 

327-9 
Manyplies,  see  Omasum 
Marbling  of  meat,  31,  32 
Mare,  see  Horses 
Mastication,  40,  41 
energy  lost  in,  99 
Meadow  fescue  pasture,  286 
Measurement  of  grain,  113 
Meat,  marbling  of,  31,  32 
Meat  meal,  216-8 
Meat  scraps,  219 
Metabolism,  76-7 
Metabolizable  energy,  95-8 
uses  in  animal  body,  97-8 
Methane,  43,  54,  95 


Middlings,  see  kind  of  middlings  as 
Oat  middlings.  Wheat  mid- 
dlings, etc. 
Milch  cows,  see  Cows,  dairy 
Milk,  action,  of  rennin  on,  42 

amount  produced  per  100    lbs.  of 
digestible    organic    matter, 
311 
composition  of,  139 
crude  protein  in,  13 
fat  in,  22 

mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  16 
skim,  229 
water  in,  5 
Milk  cows,  see  Cows,  dairy 
Milk  production,  139-49 

Eckles  feeding  standard  for,   147-8 
Haecker      feeding     standard      for, 

140-2,  148 
Henry-Morrison   feeding  standard 

for.  Appendix  Table  33 
Savage  feeding  standard  for,  142-5, 

148 
Wolff-Lehmann    feeding    standard 

for.  Appendix  Table  32 
WoU-Humphrey   feeding  standard 
for,  145-6,  148 
Milk  products,  crude  protein  in,  13 
fat  in,  22 

mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  16 
water  in,  5 
Milk  sugar,  see  Lactose 
Millet,  183 
Millet  hay,  248-9 
Millet  pasture,  281 
silage,  281 
straw,  264 
Milo  maize,  182,  258-60 
Milo  maize  fodder,  258-60 
Milo  maize  silage,  294-5 
Milo  maize  stover,  262 
Mineral    matter   or   ash,    absorption 
of,  49,  51 
digestibility  of,  63^ 
excretion    of,    from    animal    body, 

77-8 
functions  of,  in  animal  body,  77^ 
80 


INDEX 


389 


Mineral  matter  or  ash,  in  animal  and 
vegetable  substances,  6-7 
bodies  of  farm  animals,  26,  27-8 
feedingstuffs,  7-9 

how  determined,  8 
increase     in     body     weight     of 

steers,  33 
manure  of  farm  animals,  325 
influence     on     farm     animals     of 

rations  deficient  in,  78-80 
of    feed    excreted    in    manure    by 

farm  animals,  322-3 
required  for  fertilizing  soil,  320 
growth,  78-80 
Mixed  feeds,  commercial,  223-6 
Molasses,  227 
Molasses  feeds,  228 
Mouth,  34 

digestion  in,  40-1 
Muscles,    energy   used    in    work    of, 
101-2 

Net  energy,  see  Energy,  net 
Nitrogen  as  a  fertilizer,  320 

in  manure  of  farm  animals,  325 
of   feeds    excreted    in   manure    by 
farm  animals,  322-3 
Nitrogen-free  extract,  absorption  of, 
53 
composition  of,  14-5 
digestibility  of,  64-5 
digestion  of,  52-3 
in  feedingstuffs,  15-6,  52 
how  determined,  15 
Non-proteins,  11 
Nutrients,  2-3 

absorption  of,  47-50 
definition  of,  2 
digestible,  74-5 

in        feedingstuffs.        Appendix 

Tables  29,  30,  31,  35 
yield    of,    per    acre    by    various 
crops,  159 
digestion  of,  40-7,  50-5 
functions  of,  in  animal  body,  76-89 
gross  energy  values  of,  95 
net  energy  values  of,  101 
nitrogenous,   influence   on   digesti- 
bility of   adding   to   ration, 
74 


Nutrients,  non-nitrogenous,  influence 
of  excess   of,   in    ration    on 
digestibility,  73 
required     by     farm     animals     for 
fattening,  135-7 
growth,  130-4 
maintenance,  129-30 
milk  production,  139-49 
wool  production,  149 
work,  137-9 
Nutritive  ratio,  89-92 

Oat  by-products,  202-3 
Oat  clippings,  203 
Oat  dust,  203 
Oat  grass,  taU,  253 
Oat  grass  hay,  253 
Oat  hay,  254 
Oat  hulls,  202-3 
Oat  middlings,  202 
Oat  pasture,  283 
Oat  shorts,  202 
Oat  straw,  264 
Oats,  169-74 

composition  of,  171 

for  breeding  stock,  172-3 
fattening  stock,  172 
growing  stock,  171-2 
milk  cows,  173 
work  horses,  174-5 

net  energy  value  of,  171 
Oil,  definition  of,  19 
Oil-bearing  seeds,  186-7 

crude  fiber  in,  17-8 

crude  protein  in,  12-3 

fat  in,  21-3 

mineral  matter  in,  8 

nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 

water  in,  5-6 
Oil  by-products,  206-15 

crude  fiber  in,  18 

crude  protein  in,  12-3 

fat  in,  21-2 

mineral  matter  in,  8 

nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 

water  in,  5-6 
Oil     cake,     see     Linseed      meal      or 

cake 
OUs,  20 
Olein,  19 


390 


INDEX 


Omasum,  35-6 
digestion  in,  42-3 

Orchard  grass,  250 

Orchard  grass  hay,  250 

Orchard  grass  pasture,  282 

Organic  acids,  14 

Organic  compounds,  2-3 

Organic  matter,  products  yielded 
by  various  farm  animals 
from  100  lbs.  of  digestible, 
311 

Oxygen,  18,  19 

Packinghouse  by-products,  21(3  20 

crude  fiber  in,  18 

crude  protein  in,  12-3 

fat  in,  21-2 

mineral  matter  in,  S 

nitrogen-free  extract  in,    15  6 

water  in,  5-6 
Palatability,     influence     of,     on     di- 
gestibility of  rations,  68-9 
Palmitin,  19 
Pancreas,  37,  38 
Pancreatic  amylase,  44,  45,  53 
Pancreatic  juice,  38,  44,  45 
Pancreatic  lipase,  44,  45,  46 
Pasture,  266-7,  270-86 

classes  of,  266-7 

crude  fiber  in,  18 

crude  protein  in,  12-3 

definition,  266 

fat  in,  21-2 

grasses,  277-86 

legumes,  270-7 

mineral  matter  in,  8 

nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15 

water  in,  5 
Patent    stock    foods,     influence    of, 
on  digestibility,  70-1,  221-2 
Paunch,  see  Rumen 
Pea,  Canada  field,  183-4 

for  hay,  244 
Peanut  hay,  244 
Peanut  hulls,  215 
Peanut  meal  or  cake,  214 
Peanut  pasture,  274 
Peanuts,  185-6 
Peat,  300 
Pentosans,  13,  43 


Pepsin,  42,  51 

Peptids,  45,  51 

Peptones,  42,  45,  46,  51,  52 

Perennial  rye  grass  pasture,  286 

Perspiration,  loss  of  body   heat  by, 

103-4 
Phosphatides,  20-1 
Phosphorus,  as  a  fertilizer,  320 

excretion  of,  from  animal  body,  78 
in  animal  body,  28 

feedingstuffs,  7 
influence  on  pigs,  of  rations  defi- 
cient in,  79-80 
in  manure   of  farm   animals,   322, 

325 
inorganic,  for  pigs,  79 
of   feeds,    excreted   in   manure   by 
farm  animals,  322-3 
Pigs 

(For  the  value  of  a  particular 
feed  for  pigs,  see  name  of 
feed) 
addition  of  nitrogenous  nutrients 
to  rations  of,  as  affecting 
digestibility,  73 
ash  of  feed  excreted  in  manure  by, 

322-3 
calcium-poor    rations,     effect    on, 

79-80 
composition  of  bodies  of,  26 
concentrates  for,  111,  112 
Dietrich's    feeding     standard     for 

growing,  133 
efficiency  of  gains  as  affected  by 
previous  fasting,  317 
as  related  to  body  weight,  314 
excess  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients 
in    rations    as   affecting   di- 
gestibility, 73 
fat  in  bodies  of,  26 
feeding  rock  phosphate  to,  79 
grinding  grains  for,  70 
individuality    of,    as    affecting    di- 
gestibility of  rations,  68 
influence    of    rations    deficient    in 
mineral  matter  on,  78-80 
in  protein  on,  83-7 
mineral  matter  in  bodies  of,  26 
required     for     growth,      78-80, 
131 


INDEX 


391 


Pigs,  nitrogen  of  feed  excreted  in  ma- 
nure by,  323 
phosphorus-poor  rations,  effect  on, 

79-80 
protein  in  bodies  of,  26 
rations      for,       calculating,      111, 

112 
relation  of  body  weight  to  efficiency 

of  gains,  314 
roughages  for.  111,  112 
strength   of  bones   as   affected   by 

feed,  79-80 
water  in  bodies  of,  26,  27 
weights  of,  as  related  to  efficiency 

of  gains,  314 
Sec.  also  Hogs 
Plants,  carbohydrates  in,  13 
crude  fiber  in,  16-7 
fat  in,  IS 

mineral  matter  in,  6-7 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  14-5 
non-proteins  in,  11 
protein  in,  9 

stage  of  growth  of,  as  affecting   di- 
gestibility, 71-2 
storage  of  energy  by,  92 
water  in,  4 
Potassium,  as  a  fertilizer,  320 
in  animal  body,  28 
feedingstuffs,  7 

manure  of  farm  animals,  322-3, 
325 
of   feeds    excreted    in    manure    by 
farm  animals,  322-3 
Potatoes,  299 
Potato  starch,  13 
Potential  energy,  92-3 
Poultry,   products  of,  from   100  lbs. 
digestible    organic    matter, 
311 
Prairie  hay,  253 
Pregnant  animals,  feed  requirements 

of,  134 
Preparation    of    feeds    as    affecting 
digestibility  of  rations,  69- 
70 
efficiency  of  rations,  309-10 
Previous    treatment    of    animals    as 
affecting    efficiency    of    ra- 
tions, 316-7 


Products  of  various  farm  animals 
from  100  lbs.  digestible 
organic  matter,  311 
Proprietary  feeds,  influence  of,  on 
digestibility  of  rations,  70-1, 
221-2 
Protein,  9 

absorption  of,  48,  51-2 
composition  of,  10 
crude,  9 

body  fat  formed  from,  81-2 
digestibility  of,  64 
energy  derived  from,  80-1 
functions    of,    in    animal    body, 

80-2 
in  feedingstuffs,  12-3 
glycogen  derived  from.  81-2 
digestion  of,  42,  44-5,  46,  47,  51-2 
gross  energy  value  of,  95 
in  bodies  of  farm  animals,  26,  29- 

30 
influence  on  pigs,  of  rations  defi- 
cient in,  83-7 
in  increase  in  body  weight  of  farm 

animals,  31-3 
net  energj'  values  of,  101 
nutritive  value  of,  9,   10-11,  80-2 
required  for  growth,  9,  80,  81,  82 
Proteoses,  42,  45,  46,  47,  51,  52 
Ptomaines,  47,  52 
Ptyalin,  39-41,  52-3 
Pumpkins,  304 

Quantity    of    feed,    how    determined 
for  rations,  112-3 
influence    of,    on    digestibility    of 
rations,  72-3 
efficiency  of  rations,   307-9 

Radiation,    loss    of    body    heat    by, 

103-4 
Rape,  301-2 
Rape  seed  cake,  215 
Ratio,  nutritive,  89-92 
Rations,  amounts  of,  as  affecting   di- 
gestibility, 72-3 
efficiency,  307-9 
balanced,  119 

composition     of,     as    affecting    ef- 
ficiency, 306-7 


392 


INDEX 


Rations,  compounding  of,  according 
to  feeding  standards,  121-3, 
125-9,  139-49 
for  beef  cattle.  111 

dairy  cows,  110-11,  139-49 
fattening,  135-7 
growth,  130-4 
hogs,  111-2 
horses,  109-10 
maintenance,  129-30 
milk  production,  139-49 
pregnancy,  134 
sheep,  112,  149 
wool  production,  149 
work,  137-9 
general  rules  for,  107-13 
deficient  in  mineral  matter,  influ- 
ence of,  on  pigs,  78-80 
protein,    influence    of,    on    pigs, 
83-7 
digestibility    of,    as    affecting    effi- 
ciency, 307 
factors  affecting,  66-74 
efficiency  of,  305-19 

factors  affecting,  306-19 
excess  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients 
in,  as  affecting  digestibility, 
73-4 
feed-unit    system    of    calculating, 

149-52 
maintenance,  129-30 
palatability    of,    as    affecting    di- 
gestibility, 68-9 
preparation    of,     as    affecting    di- 
gestibility, 69-70 
efficiency,  309-10 
standards  for,  see  Feeding  stand- 
ards 
vitamines  in,  22-4 
Raw  bone  meal,  219-20 
Red  clover,  see  Clover,  red 
Red  dog  flour,  198-9 
Red  top  grass  hay,  250 
Red  top  grass  pasture,  282 
Red  top  straw,  264 
Refuse,  cannery,  for  silage,  295 
Rennin,  42 

Respiration  calorimeter,  96-7 
Reticulum,  35,  36 
digestion  in,  42-3 


Rice,  183 
Rice  bran,  204 
Rice  by-products,  204 
Rice  hulls,  204 
Rice  polish,  204 
Rock  phosphate  for  pigs,  79 
Roots,  296-300 
crude  fiber  in,  18 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
fat  in,  21-2 
mineral  matter  in,  8-9 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 
water  in,  5 
Roughages,      compared      with      con- 
centrates     in      digestibility 
of: 
crude  fiber,  65-6 
crude  protein,  64 
fat,  66 

nitrogen-free  extract,  64-5 
definition,  106 

estimating  weights  of,  1 15-7 
in  rations,  112-3 
net  energy  value  of,  106 
proportion   of,   to   concentrates   as 
affecting  efficiency  of  gains, 
307 
subclasses,   157-8 
valuation  of,  as  compared  with 
concentrates,  114 
Rumen,  35,  36 

digestion  in,  42-3 
Ruminants,  mastication  of,  41 
stomachs  of,  35-6 
digestion  in,  42-4 
Rumination,  41 

energy  used  in,  99 
Rutabagas,  299 
Rye,  174-5 

composition  of,  174 
distillers'  grains  from,  204 
for  breeding  stock,  175 
fattening  stock,  175 
gro\ving  stock,  174-5 
milk  cows,  175 
work  horses,  175 
net  energy  value  of,  174 
Rye  bran,  203 
Rye  by-products,  203-4 
Rye  feed,  204 


INDEX 


393 


Rye  grass  hay,  Italian,  253-4 
Rye  grass  pasture,  Italian,  283 

perennial,  286 
Rye  hay,  254-5 
Rye  middlings.  203-4 
Rye  pasture,  283 
Rye  shorts,  203 
Rye  straw,  264 

Saliva,  action  on  food,  40-41 

amount  secreted,  40 
Salivary  amylase,  39-41,  52-3 
Salivary  glands,  37-8,  40 
Salt,    common,   influence   of,    on   di- 
gestibility, 71 
required  by  farm  animals,  78 
Salvage  grain,  229 
Saponification,  20 
Savage   feeding    standard    for    dairy 

cows,  142-5,  148 
Seeds,  157-87 

crude  fiber  in,  17-8 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
fat  in,  22 

leguminous,  183-6 
mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 
oil-bearing,  186-7 
water  in,  5-6 
Self-feeders,  152-6 
for  cattle,  155-6 
hogs,  153-5 
horses,  156 
sheep,  156 
Sesame  seed  cake,  215 
Shallu,  182,  260 
Shallu  fodder,  260 
Shallu  stover,  262 
Sheep 

(For  the  value  of  a  particular  feed 
for  sheep,  see  name  of  feed) 
amount    of    feed    as    affecting    di- 
gestibility of  rations  for,  73 
ash  of  feed  excreted  in  manure  by, 

323 
composition  of  bodies  of,  26 
concentrates  for,  112 
digestible     nutrients     in     feeding- 
stuffs   for,   Appendix  Table 
29 


Sheep,  fat  in  bodies  of,  26,  28 

fertilizing  elements  in  manure  of, 

325 
grinding  grains  for,  70,  310 
large  intestines  of,  37 
maintenance  requirements  of,  130 
manure,  amount  excreted  per  year 
by,  321 
ash  of  feed  excreted  in,  323 
fertilizing  elements  in,  325 
nitrogen  of  feed  excreted  in,  323 
mineral   matter   in  bodies    of,  26, 

28 
nitrogen  of  feed  excreted  in  manure 

of,  323 
products  of,  per  100  lbs.  digestible 

organic  matter,  311 
protein  in  bodies  of,  26,  30 
requirements  for  fattening,  136 

wool  production,  149 
roughages  for,  112 

utilization    of,     compared    with 
other  animals,  67,  312 
self-feeders  for,  156 
small  intestines  of,  36 
species   of,    as   affecting   efficiency 

of  rations,  310 
stomachs  of,  35-6 
total  dry  substance  and  digestible 
nutrients     in     feedingstuffs 
for.  Appendix  Table  29 
type  of,   as  affecting  efficiency  of 

rations,  313 
water  in  bodies  of,  26,  27 
wool  production,  requirements  for, 

149 
See  also  Lambs 
Shelter  for  farm  animals,  104-5,  319 
Shipstuff,  199 

Shoats,   concentrates  and  roughages 
for,  112 
See  also  Hogs,  Pigs 
Shorts,   see   kind   of   shorts,    as  Oat 

shorts.  Rye  shorts,  etc. 
SUage,  287-95 

advantages  of,  288-9 
alfalfa  for,  294 
beet  pulp  for,  295 
cannery  refuse  for,  295 
clover  for,  294 


394 


INDEX 


Silage,  corn  for,  289-94 
composition  of,  290 
for  beef  cattle,  292-3 
dairy  cows,  291-2 
hogs,  294 
horses,  293-4 
sheep,  293 
influence    of    fermentation    on, 

290-1 
net  energy  value  of,  290 
yield  per  acre,  290 
cowpeas  for,  294 
crude  fiber  in,  18 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
fat  in,  22 
feterita  for,  294-5 
kafir  corn  for,  294-5 
mUo  maize  for,  294-5 
mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,    15-6 
soft  corn  for,  290 
sorghum  bagasse  for,  295 
soybeans  for,  294 
sweet  sorghum  for,  294-5 
water  in,  5 
Silo,  287-9 

capacity  of,  118 
requisites  of  a  good,  287-S 
Skatol,  47,  52 
Skim  milk,  82,  229 
Skin,  loss  of  heat  from,  by  evapora- 
ation  from,  103-4 
conduction    and    radiation    from, 
103-4 
Slaughter-house  by-products,  210-20 
Slender  wheat  grass,  254 
Slender  wheat  grass  hay,  254 
Small  intestine,  36 

digestion  in,  44-6 
Soaking    feed,    influence    of,    on    di- 
gestibility  of    feedingstuffs, 
69 
efficiency  of  rations,  310 
Soap,  how  made,  20 
Sodium,  in  animal  body,  28 

feedingstuffs,  8 
Soft  corn,  166 

for  silage,  290 
Soilage,  267-86 

advantages  of,  268-9 


Soilage,  crops  for,  267-86 

definition,  267 

disadvantages  of,  268-9 

grasses  for,  277-86 

legumes  for,  270-7 
Sorgho,  see  Sorghum,  sweet 
Sorghum,  sweet,  179-82 
Sorghum  bagasse  silage,  295 
Sorghum  fodder,  sweet,  258 
Sorghum  hay,  249 
Sorghum  pasture,  281-2 
Sorghum  silage,  sweet,  294-5 
Sorghum  stover,  262 
Sorghums,  grain,  179-82 

sweet.  179-82 
Sows,  see  Hogs  and  Pigs 
Soybean,  185 
Soybean  cake,  214 
Soybean  hay,  245 
Soybean  meal,  214 
Soybean  pasture,  277 
Soybean  silage,  294 
Soybean  straw,  264 
Species   of   animal,   influence   of,   on 
digestibility,  66-7 

efficiency  of  rations,  310-2 

value  of  manure,  324-5 
Spelt,  179 
Sperm  oil,  20 

Stacks,    hay,    estimating   cubic    con- 
tents of,  115-7 
Stage  of  growth  of  plant,  influence 

of,  on  digestibility,  71-2 
Stallion,  see  Horses 
Standards    of    feeding,   see    Feeding 

standards 
Starch,  13,  14 

action  of  pancreatic  amylase  on,  45 
ptyalin  on,  40,  52-3 

manufactured  from  corn,  188-9 
Steam  engine  and  animal  compared, 

96,  100 
Steapsin,  see  Pancreatic  lipase 
Stearin,  19 

Steers,  addition  of  nitrogenous  nu- 
trients to  ration  as  affecting 
digestibility,  74 

age    of,    as    affecting    digestibility 
of  rations,  67 
efficiency  of  rations,  314-5 


INDEX 


395 


steers,  amount  of  feed,  influence  of,  on 
digestibility  of  rations,  72-3 
efficiency  of  rations  for,  307-8 

ash  in  bodies  of,  26,  29 

of  feed  excreted  in  manure  of, 
323 

breed  of,  as  affecting  digestibility 
of  rations,  67 

calculating  rations  for,  111,  125-6 

capacity  of,  as  affecting  efficiency 
of  rations,  315-6 

composition  of  bodies  of,  26 

increase  in  body  weight  of,  32-3 

concentrates  for,  111 

condition  of,  as  affecting  diges- 
tibility of  rations,  67 

fat  in  bodies  of,  26,  28,  29 

fertilizing  elements  in  manure  of, 
321-2 

grade  of,  as  affecting  efficiency 
of  rations  for,  312-3 

Haecker's  feeding  standard  for 
fattening,  131-2 

increase  in  body  weight  of,  com- 
position, 32-3 

length  of  fattening  period,  influ- 
ence of,  on  efficiency  of 
gains,  317-8 

manure,   ash  of  feed  excreted  in, 
323 
fertilizing  elements  in,  321-2 
loss  in,  from  exposure  to  weather, 

326 
nitrogen  of  feed  excreted  in,  323 

mineral  matter  in  bodies  of,  26,  29 

net  energy  required  by,  for  1  lb. 
of  gain,  314 

nitrogen  of  feed  excreted  in  ma- 
nure by,  323 

patent  stock  foods,  influence  of, 
on  digestibility  of  rations, 
71 

preparation  of  feeds  as  affecting 
efficiency  of  rations,  311-2 

previous  treatment  as  affecting 
efficiency  of  rations,  316, 
317 

products  of,  from  100  lbs.  of  di- 
gestible organic  matter, 
311-2 


Steers,    protein    in    bodies    of,     26, 
29 
requirements  for  fattening,   131-2, 

136 
roughages  for.  111 
self-feeders  for,  155-6 
shelling  corn  for,  309 
temperament  of,   as  affecting  effi- 
ciency of  rations,  316 
water  in  bodies  of,  26,  29 
Stimulant,  prescription  for,  222-3 
Stock    foods,    patent,     influence    of, 
on  digestibility,  70  1,  221-2 
Stomach,  34-5 
digestion  in,  41-4 
of  cow,  35 
hog,  34-5 
horse,  34-5 
ruminants,  35-6 

digestion  in,  42-4 
sheep,  35 
simple,  34-5 

digestion  in,  41-2 
Storage  of  carbohydrates  as  glycogen 
and  fat  in  animal  body,  87, 88 
crude  protein  as  glycogen  and  fat 

in  animal  body,  81-2 
energy  in  animal  body,  105 
fat  in  animal  body,  81-2,  87,  88,  89 
feedingstuffs,   influence  of,   on  di- 
gestibility, 72 
glycogen  in  animal  body,  81-2, 87, 88 
Stovers,  256-62 

crude  fiber  in,  17-8 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
fat  in,  22 

mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 
water  in,  5 
Straws,  263-5 

crude  fiber  in,  17-8 
crude  protein  in,  12-3 
fat  in,  21-2 
mineral  matter  in,  8 
nitrogen-free  extract  in,  15-6 
water  in,  5 
Sucrase,  44,  46 

action  of,  on  sucrose,  46,  53 
Sucrose,  13,  14,  52 

action  of  sucrase  on,  46,  53 


396 


INDEX 


Sudan  grass,  249-50 
Sudan  grass  hay,  250 
Sugar-beet  pulp,  see  Beet  pulp 
Sugar  beets,  298 
Sugars,  13,  14 

absorption  of,  48,  53 
Sulphur,  in  animal  body,  28 

feedingstufTs,  7 
Sunflower-seed  cake,  215 
Sweating   of   feeds,  influence   of,  on 

digestibility,  69 
Swedes,  299 

Swedish  clover,  see  Clover,  alsike 
Sweet  clover,  see  Clover,  sweet 
vSweet  sorghum,  see  Sorghum,  sweet 
Swine,  see  Hogs  and  Pigs 

Tall  oat  grass,  253 

Tall  oat  grass  hay,  253 

Tankage,  216-8 

Teeth,  37 

Temperament  of  animal,  influence 
of,  on  efficiency  of  rations, 
316 

Temperature,  influence  of,  on  effi- 
ciency of  rations,  319 

Therm,  93 

Timothy  grass,  280-1 

Timothy  hay,  246-8 

Timothy  pasture,  280-1 

Timothy  straw,  264 

Tin-plate  by-product,  230 

Tongue,  37 

Tonic,  prescription  for,  222-3 

Treatment  of  animal,  influence  of, 
on  efficiency  of  rations, 
316-7 

Trypsin,  44-5,  51,  52 

Turnips,  299 

Type  of  animal,  influence  of,  on 
efficiency  of  rations,  312-3 

Urine,     amounts     voided     by     farm 
animals  per  year,  321 
fertilizing  elements  in,  322,  325 
influence  of  loss   of,   on  value  of 

manure,  325 
mineral   matter  of  feeds  excreted 
in,  by  dairy  cows,  322 
Utilization  of  energy,  coefficient   of, 
102-3 


Valuation  of  feedingstuffs,  330-3 

Van    Norman    feeding    standard    for 
dairy  cows,  128-9 

Vegetable  meal,  230-1 

Velvet  bean  hay,  244 

Velvet  bean  pasture,  274 

Vetch,  common  and  hairy,  for  hay, 
245-6 
for  pasture,  277  . 

Villi,  47-9 

Vinegar-dried  grains,  231 

Vital  processes,  energy  consumed  in, 
98-9 

Vitamines,  22-4 

Voluntary      muscles,      energy      con- 
sumed in  work  of,  101-2 

Water,  absorption  of,  49,  50 
composition  of,  3 
function  of,  in  plants,  4 

in  animal  body,  77 
how  excreted  from  animal  body,  77 
in  bodies  of  farm  animals,  26-7 
function,  77 
feedingstuffs,  4-6 
how  determined,  5 
nutritive  value,  9 
warming  for  farm  animals,  104 
Watering  farm  animals,   influence   of 
frequency  on  digestibility,  70 
Waxes,  20 

Weight,    body,    composition    of    in- 
crease in,  30^3 
Western  wheat  grass,  254 
Western  wheat  grass  hay,  254 
W^et  beet  pulp,  228 
Wet  brewers'  grains,  199-201 
Wethers,  see  Sheep 
Wetting  feeds,   influence  of,   on   di- 
gestibility, 69 
efficiency  of  rations,  310 
Wheat.  166-9 

composition  of,  167 
for  breeding  stock,  169 
fattening  stock,  168-9 
growing  stock,  167-8 
milk  cows,  169 
work  horses,  169 
kinds  of,  167 
net  energy  value  of,  167 


INDEX 


397 


Wheat,  spring,  lfi7 

winter,  167 
Wheat  bran,  194-6 
composition  of,  194 
for  breeding  stock,  196 
fattening  stock,  195-6 
growing  stock,  195 
milch  cows,  196 
work  horses,  196 
net  energy  value  of,  194 
Wheat  by-products,  193-200 
Wheat  grass,  254 
Wheat  grass  hay,  254 
Wheat  middlings,  197-8 
Wheat  pasture,  284 
Wheat  screenings,  200 
Wheat  shorts,  197 
Wheat  starch,  13 
Wheat  straw,  264 
AVhey,  230 

White  clover,  see  Clover,  white 
Wolff-Lehmann    feeding    standards, 

120-1,  Appendix  Table  32 
WoU-Humphrey    feeding    standards 
for  dairy  cows,  145-6,  148 


Wool  fat,  20 

Wool    production,  requirements    for, 

149 
Work,  influence  of,  on  digestibility, 
67-8 
of  digestion  and  absorption,  energy 
consumed  in,  99-100 
vital     processes,      energy     con- 
sumed in,  98-9 
voluntary  muscles,   energy  con- 
sumed in,  101-3 
heat  produced  in,  102 
influence   of,   on   digestibility, 

67-8 
requirements    by    horses    for, 

138-9 

sources  of  energy  for,  80,  87, 

88,  89 

requirements  of  farm  animals  for, 

137-9 

Work  horses,  see  Horses 

Yeast-dried  grains,  231 

Zein,  83 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


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